LP 246 
.C6 
Copy 1 



UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO BULLETIN 

Vol. XIV, No. 10. 

Published Monthly by the Regents of the University of Colorado. 
Entered at the Post Office. Boulder. Colorado, as second-class mail matter. 



A GENERAL SURVEY OF PUBLIC 

HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION 

IN COLORADO 




Boulder, Colorado, October, 1914 



General Series No. 75 
Education Series No. 3 



UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO BULLETIN 

Vol. XIV. No. 10. 

Published Monthly by the Regents of the University of Colorado. 
Entered at the Post Office, Boulder, Colorado, as second-class mail matter. 



A GENERAL SURVEY OF PUBLIC 

HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION 

IN COLORADO 



WILLIAM A. COOK 

High-School Visitor 




Boulder, Colorado. October. 1914 



General Series No. 75 
Education Series No. 3 



M: 



"''Oi?rjp|, 



9: w i: 

AUG 24 1915 



U^. 



^A*^ 



C(£> 






CONTENTS. 



PREFATORY NOTE. 
INTRODUCTION. 

I. TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION. 
II. FINANCIAL SUPPORT. 

A. Tax Rate. 

B. Cost of Operation. 

C. Instructional Equipment. 

III. THE STUDENT BODY. 

A. Total Enrollment. 

B. Attendance. 

C. Size of Schools. 

D. Class Distribution. 

E. Sex Distribution. 

F. Physical Welfare. 

G. Social Organization. 
H. The Graduates. 

IV. THE TEACHING STAFF. 

A. Preparation. 

B. Experience. 

C. Instructional Work. 

D. Tenure. 

E. Salary. 

F. The Teacher's Personality. 

V. THE COURSE OF STUDY. 

A. Offerings. 

B. Arrangement of Courses. 

C. Requirements for Graduation. 

D. Textbooks. 

VI. SUPERVISION. 

A. The Supervisors. 

B. Records and Reports. 

C. Discipline. 

D. The Daily Program. 

VII. THE SCHOOL IN CONTACT WITH THE COMMUNITY. 

A. Outside Agencies Working With the School. 

B. The School Serving the Community. 

C. Vocational Guidance. 



PREFATORY NOTE. 

The desirability of a survey of liigh-school conditions in Colorado has 
been discussed for several years by the High-School and College Conference 
and in a way has been prepared for by the kev^ping of such reports as could 
be collected. This last year's field work has been focused upon this purpose. 
In the absence of any provision by the State for conducting such an inves- 
tigation, it was arranged that the High-School Visitor of the University 
should gather data and carry on the study in connection with his regular 
functions during the year 1913-1914. The University, in addition to the Vis- 
itor's expense, has borne expenses for printing of blanks, clerical assistance 
in assembling data, and publication of results. 

The aim from the first has been the making of an inventory, the "taking 
of stock", educationally. The value of surveys in education, as well as in 
all other lines of endeavor, has been seen for several years past, and each 
new survey seems to be undertaken in a more scientific spirit. This survey 
was asked for by men anxious to know just where we stand that we may see 
better what to do next. The aim throughout has been to avoid all sweeping 
adverse criticisms and to present all findings with as little bias as possible. 

From the standardization of mechanical devices, articles of food, dress, 
manufacturing concerns, domesticated animals and plants, and even human 
beings, we have advanced to the standardizing of certain educational prod- 
ucts, in the various branches of school work, and are now attempting to 
standardize educational institutions. For a number of years there have 
been certain "standards" which high schools have been asked to attain be- 
fore being placed on accredited lists. These standards have been determined 
upon by committees not always conversant with conditions in detail. They 
have been inevitably general in form, and inspection in accordance with 
them has not been as searching as was desirable. There has been and there 
still is much groping for finer gradations in standards and for standards 
which will really help us to a more vital appraisement of our schools. 

The problem of educational standardization is to devise standards which 
shall be as nearly as possible quantitative. The educational situation at any 
time is the resultant of a conflict between the theorist — the man with a 
vision — who has done much for education and can never be dispensed with, 
on the one hand, and the practical school men struggling under the limita- 
tions imposed by society, on the other. The survey comes to our aid by 
placing definitely before us the actual conditions and achievements: we dis- 
cover that things are not what they "ought" to be on the one hand, nor are 
they what they "must" be on the other. 

A very important outcome of any survey should be the collection and 
dissemination of information on matters that trouble those in the field. The 
Visitor has been impressed on his trips the past year with the number of 
questions asked regarding practices in other schools in respect to all sorts 
of matters; since the survey material has been more nearly complete, in- 



6 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

quiries of many kinds have been coming in. This report is general; it does 
not attempt to present all of the detailed facts that have been gathered; it 
is planned to make supplementary studies of the material already gathered 
and to gather new material. Some twenty-five additional new problems are 
listed for investigation during the coming year. The survey blanks, on which 
this report is based, were not presumed to be at all inclusive; they sought 
for light on a number of the more salient points, as many inquiries as one 
man in the field could well make. The transverse, or "cross-section", view 
which this report gives will be supplemented by a longitudinal view to be 
had by carrying many identical items forward in reports from year to year. 
The University hopes to have, in time, a considerable body of reliable infor- 
mation concerning all aspects of Colorado secondary education. 

FRANK E. THOMPSON. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



INTRODUCTION. 

As suggested above, the data for the survey has been collected principally 
by personal visits to the schools. While all possible time and care were 
taken in making the blanks, it soon developed that without a lengthy book 
of instructions they were full of opportunities for misunderstanding. The 
few schools that were surveyed by mail gave us reason for accepting with 
some reservation the validity of results obtained by surveys carried on by 
mail. Four men filled out blanks on the ground. One surveyed one small 
school, another surveyed the five Denver high schools, a third surveyed 
sixteen schools, the fourth covered eighty-two four-year schools and twelve 
of less than four years. Less than a dozen four-year schools were covered 
by mail and for the majority of them the reports are fragmentary. Many 
short-course schools could be reached only by mail. North-Central-Associa- 
tion records and the reports in the offices of county superintendents have 
been utilized extensively. 

Though a few sets of blanks have been filled by mail, apparently with 
the greatest of care, and though nearly all superintendents, principals, and 
teachers when visited and acquainted with the purpose of the survey have 
responded readily and cheerfully, there have been certain obstacles of a gen- 
eral character. First, schools are without any uniform system of keeping 
records. Statistics given on one basis in one school were not available in 
another because records were kept in a different form. For example, in one 
school the total enrollment for any month is obtainable as the number of 
students enrolled during that month; in another school the "total enroll- 
ment" is the total number enrolled during the year up to the time of report- 
ing, and the total enrollment for no month except the first is kept sepa- 
rately. 

Second, there is a paucity of records in many schools. School people 
often fail to see the possibilities of exact quantitative data for use in the 
study of education. Some were inclined to "guess off" the data for their 
schools. These "guesses" were checked up as far as possible; all mere esti- 
mates have been discarded. 

Third, carelessness often marred the reliability of school records. One 
teacher kept attendance on an improvised record, since the board had not 
purchased a register. Another was "going to fix up her book after while"; 
records were then a month or more behind. Reports to a county superin- 
tendent in one case showed a large enrollment in the ninth grade for one 
month, but none for the rest of the year; it was the eighth grade entered by 
mistake under the ninth. One four-year high school showed an enrollment 
of 39 for the closing month of school, but had an aggregate attendance 
which gave a daily average of over 42. The superintendent's report for the 
same month showed 44 enrolled. Only in rare cases did the reports made 
by second- and third-class districts to the surveyor tally with the returns to 



8 I XIVJJJtSJTY OF COLORADO. 

the county superintendent. All returns have been scrutinized for inconsist- 
encies, and a number of letters have been sent out to verify doubtful data. 
After careful inquiries we have been obliged to accept, in a few instances, 
such data as "Enrollment — 268, Average attendance — 267" for the closing 
month of a large high school. Though work of this kind can not be made 
absolutely accurate, we have tried to make it sufficiently accurate for its 
general findings to be clearly trustworthy. 

The report is divided into sections, and so far as suggestions are offered 
with reference to particular problems they are incorporated in the proper 
H^ctlons. 



^rUVFY OF PUBLTC HIGH-SCHOOL EDrCATIOX 



I. TERRITORIAL DISTRIBUTION. 



It is pretty generally considered desirable that schools shall be conven- 
iently near and this is always one of the first considerations in establishing 
any system of schools. Consolidation for the sake of better and cheaper 
schools has, on the other hand, always exerted a considerable influence. 
The two factors, interacting in some instances, and independent in others, 
have been responsible for very different distributions of high schools in vari- 
ous states. In the more densely settled East, each town (center of popula- 
tion) has come to maintain its own institution, and the towns are usually 
close enough together to serve the surrounding country very well. West 
and south, conditions are different, the country is sparsely settled, and pro- 
visions for consolidation are more common. In Ohio and Indiana there is 
the union district commonly supporting a high school, while the separate 
districts have nothing of the kind. In Illinois there is the township high 
school, an organization now spreading with great rapidity, though not legally 
confined to the unionization of integral townships by any means. In Kansas, 
Colorado, Montana and other western states the county has gained much 
prominence as a unit for general high-school purposes, while in Wisconsin it 
has been made a unit for schools of secondary grade devoted to the train- 
ing of teachers or of farmers. In some parts of the South the congressional 
district has been recognized as an appropriate unit for the establishment of 
agricultural high schools. In Colorado, district, union and county units are 
all common; their legal status is set forth in Sections 139, 190-220 of the 
last edition of the School Law. 

Discussion of the distribution of high-school advantages over the state 
is preceded by the tabulation of the high schools of various kinds given 
in Table 1. 

TABLE 1. 
• High Schools i?v C()1".\"tie.s. 

Kind of School. Kind of School. 

County. Union. Dist 



County. 

Adams .... 
Alamosa . . . 
Arapahoe . . 
Archuleta . . 

Baca 

Bent 

Boulder . . . 

Chaffee 

Cheyenne . . 
Clear Creek 



Total. 

5 
2 
4 
1 



4 -Year 
Accred- Non- , Vr- 
ited. Accred- •*■ ^ '^• 
ited. 
1 1 



2-Yr. l-Yr. 



10 



UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 



County. 

Conejos . . . . 
Costilla . . . . 
Crowley . . . 

Custer 

Delta 

Denver .... 
Dolores . . . . 
Douglas . . . 

Eagle 

Elbert 

El Paso . . . 
Fremont . . . 
Garfield . . . 

Gilpin 

Grand 

Gunnison . . 
Hinsdale . . . 
Huerfano . . 
Jackson . . . 
Jefferson . . 

Kiowa 

Kit Carson 

Lake 

La Plata . . 
Larimer . . . 
Las Animas 
Lincoln .... 

Logan 

Mesa 

Mineral . . . 

Moffat 

Montezuma 
Montrose . . 
Morgan .... 

Otero 

Ouray 

Park 

Phillips 

Pitkin 



TABLE 1.— Continued. 
High Schools by Counties. 

— Kind of School. v 



-Kind of School. - 



County. 



4-Year 

TT • T^ .1 n, ,. , Accred- Non- 

Union. Dist. Total. ited. Accred- 3-Yr. 



2 (One 
branch) 



2 (One 
branch) 



3 
3 
5 
1 
6 
14 
4 
4 
4 



2 
5 
5 

7 
5 
1 
3 
4 
5 
9 
4 
5 
2 
1 
4 
1 
2 
1 
3 
3 
5 
1 
6 

14 
4 
6 
8 

10 
1 
1 
3 
3 
3 
5 
2 



ited. 
1 

1 

3 



2-Yr. 
1 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATIOX. 



11 



County. 

Prowers . . . 
Pueblo .... 
Rio Blanco 
Rio Grande. 

Routt 

Saguache . . 
San Juan . 
San Miguel 
Sedgwick . . 
Summit . . . 

Teller 

Washington 

Weld 

Yuma 



TABLE 4.— Concluded. 
High Schools by Counties. 

-Kind of School. \ i 



Kind of School. 

4-Year 



County. Union. Dist. Total. 



1 
11 

2 
3 
2 
1 
2 
2 
2 
2 
1 
31 
1 



5 

11 

1 

2 
3 

o 

1 

2 
3 
2 
2 
2 
32 
2 



Accred- Non- 
ited. Accred- 
ited. 

2 2 

2 

1 

1 1 



3-Yr. 2-Yr. 1-Yr. 

1 

3 6 



Deduct counted 
twice 



20 (Two 26 203 249 71 61 13 36 68 
brnchs) 



20 (Two 26 
brnchs) 



201 247 



70 



60 



13 



68 



County high schools enjoy the best standing as a class: 14 of them are 
accredited, 4 independent ones and 1 branch offer a four-year, non-accredited 
course, and 1 branch offers only three years. Union high schools come next: 7 
are accredited, 15 offer four years of non-accredited work, 3 offer three 
years, and 1 offers two years. The district schools come last: 49 are ac- 
credited, 40 offer four years of non-accredited work, 9 offer three years, 35 
offer two years, and 68 offer one year. 

The different schools are designated as to their educational standing 
and legal status on the accompanying map. The years of high-school work 
offered are shown by the numerals 1. 2, 3 and 4. Accredited schools are 
distinguished by figures in heavy-face type. Legal organization is indicated 
by the use of small characters slightly above and to the right of the num- 
bers, the star (•) standing for county schools, and the cross within the small 
circle (©) for union schools. The simple number is used for district schools. 

A study was made of the accessibility of these schools to the children 
of the state by describing circles of ten miles radius about each accredited 
school, and again about each four-year school. A similar procedure was fol- 
lowed,' using a radius of twenty-five miles, then one of fifty miles. For each 





RIO B L A N \ 



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IL I N C OyL N 



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c<.««rord, 



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c ,1: .4L'^^'^(f^^ PASO 

Cripple [reek 7 (— w__4J 



I 



,eO^H 



K 1 W 






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montezuXma/' 

COPltio MancosV 

^ •* ■' X ,4/ 

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pfa9cu> Spnr^s^i-; 
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S ANIMAS 



ElMoro 
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12 



iXIVER^SITY OF VOLORAIK). 



of the six maps thus made three items were calculated: Q) the number 
of counties which lay wholly within the arcs, (2) the approximate number 
of square miles included by them, (3) the number of post-offices found in- 
side of them. The results are given in Table 2. 



Miles from Entire 

Accredited School. Counties. 

10 or less 1 

25 or less 11 

50 or less 46 

Miles from 
Four-year School. 

10 or less 1 

25 or less 16 

50 or less 59 



TABLE 


2 


Approximate 

Number of 
Square Miles. 

15,535 


Per Cent 

of Area 

of State. 

14.9 


61,845 


59.5 


90,180 


86.8 


26,910 


25.9 


79,535 


76.5 


99,710 


96. 



Number of 
Post-offices. 



262 



612 

802 



756 
855 



Per Cent of 

all Post-offices 

of the State. 

30.2 

70.6 

92.5 



44.8 
87.2 
96.8 



That less than one-sixth of the area of the state is within ten miles of 
an accredited high school and not much over a half within twenty-five miles 
of such a school proves that distance is a great difficulty, even an insur- 
mountable one, for many young people of high-school age. But probably no 
other means offers a better idea of the extent to which children live at long 
distances from high schools than the figures on post-offices in Table 2, since 
post-offices argue for a population, whereas mere square miles do not. It is 
true that the Federal Census for 1910 gives population by corporate cities 
and towns and by voting precincts, but there is no way of getting definitely 
at the distribution of this population over the whole county. So far as popu- 
lation is not centered in towns and cities, it tends to cluster about them, or 
along streams, or near railroads. Counties with a varied topography, like 
Mesa, Boulder, and Las Animas, have a very unevenly distributed rural popu- 
lation. Over half the accredited schools and about a fifth of the Norlh-Central- 
Association schools are in the rural sections according to the Census of 1910, 
but each of them is in a center of population nevertheless. In each of five 
counties outside of Denver, viz., Lake, Mineral, Rio Blanco, San .luan, and San 
Miguel, over half the teachers of the county are employed in one town or 
city school. For such reasons it would be misleading to assume that the 
"rural population" (that found outside of cities of 2,500 or over) is equally 
distributed over the entire county and to use uniform shading or hatching to 
represent the fact. The statistics on post-offices, therefore, must be givc.i 
much weight. 

On the other hand, straight-line distances as measured off by the arcs 
may give no adequate conception of the miles which children have to travel 
to get to school. This must be borne in mind especially in studying the dis- 
tribution of schools in mountain counties. The distance in an air-line may 
be two miles, by the road it' may be ten. Paradox in Montrose County 
appears on the map between 55 and 60 miles from its county high school. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 13 

but its pupils must travel 52 miles by rail and 75 miles by stage to take ad- 
vantage of the facilities for which their fathers pay a tax. Marble appears 
40 miles from its county high school at Gunnison, but no cross-country jour- 
ney is possible except in July and August. For the remainder of the year a 
rail trip of 226 miles and about 24 hours is necessary. So serious is this 
problem of distance that six four-year schools and four two-year schools are 
being supported by double taxation in counties having county high schools. 

Another consequence of distance is that high schools are maintained by 
districts that have not the right to do so under the school law, because they 
are in the third class. Two accredited schools and over two-thirds of the non- 
accredited four-year schools fall into this class. 

One point to be kept in mind is that the data of Table 2 indicate the 

distance of territory and post-offices from any high school of a certain kind. 

But it happens that hundreds of high-school students reside nearer another 

high school than their own. Many boards pay no heed to the statute that directs 

such students to attend the "more accessible" school at the cost of their 

own district. Distance from one's own school is not a serious obstacle in 

districts of the ordinary sort, in a very few union schools only is it serious, 

but the larger territory subject to the county high school demands that it 

be recognized and carefully studied in this growing type of school. To that 

end Table 3 for county high schools only has been prepared, ft follows 

Table 2 in its general plan: 

TABLE 3. 

A. Tkn Mii.ks ok Less FRoir CorxxY High School. 

Square Miles Per Cent of Number of Per Cent of Post- 

County, of Area. Area of County. Post-offices, offices of County. 

Bent 314 21. 1 12.5 

Cheyenne 314 18. 3 30. 

Douglas 314 35. 3 30. 

Eagle 314 20. 2 12.5 

Gunnison 314 10. 2 9. 

i-Huerfano 314 20. 12 55. 

Jackson 314 18. 2 25. 

Logan 314 18. 3 16. 

Mineral 280 32. 4 100. 

*Montrose 465 20. 3 20. 

Ouray 260 47. 4 57. 

Phillips 310 46. 3 75. 

Rio Blanco 314 10. 1 12.5 

Saguache 314 11. 1 7. 

Sedgwick 190 35. 2 67. 

Washington 314 13. 2 8. 

Yuma 300 13. 2 11. 

tHTierfano County also is entitled to a .slightly better niting than tlie figures 
o-iven since the La Veta Union High School is not a part of the county unit. 
" i'rphe fuU-fledgod branch at Olathe was also made a center for a circle. 



14 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

TABLE 3.— Concluded. 
B. TwE.MV-FivE Miles or Less fro^e Covntv High School. 

_ . Square Miles Per Cent of Number of Per Cent of Post- 

'^°""'y- of Area. Area of County. Post-offices, offices of County. 

Bent 1,175 78. 6 75. 

Cheyenne 1,229 69. 6 60. 

Douglas 874 98. 10 100. 

Eagle 1,134 72. 12 75. 

Gunnison 1,568 48. 17 73. 

Huerfano 1,069 70. 20 91. 

Jackson 1,555 91. 8 100. 

Logan 1,353 78. 16 84. 

Mineral 730 83. 4 100. 

*Montrose 1,340 59. 8 53. 

Ouray 532 96. 7 100. 

Phillips 677 . 100. 4 100. 

Rio Blanco 1,479 46. 5 62.5 

Saguache 1.900 69. 12 86. 

Sedgwick 535 100. 3 100. 

Washington 1,473 59. 17 68. 

Yuma 1,336 58. 8 44. 

Tuition students are numerous because of the sparse population and the 
long distances. While the law on liability of a district for a student's tui- 
tion to a district supporting a high school (provided his own does not), or to 
a district with a high school more accessible than his own is plain enough 
for any willing person to understand, many boards show their willingness 
to misunderstand by refusing to pay the tuition. The district affording the 
education is then forced to choose between schooling non-residents free of 
charge, and excluding them on the ground of lack of room. To the credit of 
our people it must be said that the former alternative is the almost invaria- 
ble choice. No county high school charges tuition, and several ordinary dis- 
tricts waive the privilege. As a result it is impossible to learn the actual 
number of students attending high school outside their own districts. In- 
complete returns give over 900 attending 36 accredited schools and 33 non- 
accredited ones. The rates paid by parents or district, or remaining un- 
paid, are $2.50 per month in 40%, $2 in 15%, $3 in 10% of the cases. 
Charges run from $1 up to $5 and over in both accredited and non-accred- 
ited schools, the tendency being toward the higher figure in accredited 
schools, perhaps as a result of the recent amendment of the state law. The 
maximum charge is $6.50 per month, and is made by an accredited school. 

* The full-fledged Iji-anch at Olatlie was also made a center for a circle. 

Garfield County High is not included in this table because two-thirds of the 
districts and the majority of the school population come within four union high 
schools which are not a part of the county high-school district. The high school 
at La Junta is also omitted. Populous tliough not extensive parts of Otero County 
are not included in it. Its real status is uncertain. No one seems to know what 
type of high school it is legally. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



15 



II. FINANCIAL SUPPORT. 

Support may be viewed from three different angles: (1) the rate of tax- 
ation borne for school and other purposes, (2) the actual amounts being 
expended to maintain the school, (3) the disbursements, past and present, 
for equipment, principally non-perishable, to be used in instruction. 

A. THE TAX RATE. 

For the study of tax rates the schools are divided into different classes 
in much the same manner as is done under succeeding sections of this re- 
port. County, union and district schools are studied separately, with subdi- 
visions of each class into (1) North Central. (2) other accredited, (3) non- 
accredited 4-year, and short-course high schools. The reasons dictating a 
separate consideration of these classes of schools can not be discussed here, 
but they will appear sufficient after even a casual study. 

TABLE 4. 
Tax Rates for All School Pirposes in Ordinary and Consolidated 

Districts. 



Mills Under 1 

North Central 

Other Accredited 

Non-Accredited 4-Year .... 1 

Three- Year 

Two- Year 

One- Year 



1-2 



2-3 



Mills 7-8 

North Central 10 



Other Accredited 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 

Three-Year 

Two- Year 

One-Year 



8-9 
3 
5 
7 
1 



3-4 



2 

1 

14 

9-10 
2 
2 
3 
1 
3 



4-5 
1 
2 
2 

4 
6 

10-11 



5-6 
1 
2 
6 
2 
4 
9 
11 and 
over 
3 
1 
4 

1 
1 



6-7 
5 



7 
13 

Total 
25* 
18 
38 
7 
26 
52 



Tax R.\tes for All School Purposes in Union Districts. 



Mills Under 1 

North Central 

Other Accredited 

Non-Accredited 4- Year 

Short-Course 



1-2 



2-S 



3-4 



4-5 



5-6 
1 



* Denver schools are disregarded. School tax in different parts of the Denver 
district varies from 3.85 to 5.35 mills, which is considerably below the general ten- 
dency for North-Central-Association schools. Cripple Creek and Victor are tallied 
as one because they are under the control of one district. 



16 VMVhJRSITY OF COlJ>h'.\D(K 



Mills 6-7 7-8 8-9 9-l(i 10-11 Total 

North Central 1 . • 2t 

Other Accredited . . . . 1 4 

Non- Accredited 4-Year 3 2 1 1 15 

Short-Course 1 . ■ ■ • • • 4 

The rates for education in county districts are much lower owing to the 
exclusion of local district rates. These latter vary greatly because they are 
levied by all sorts of districts, rich and poor, urban and rural. The local 
rates were consulted for union schools, because theoretically at least the dis- 
tricts composing a union are somewhat on a level in educational sentiment, 
since each separately has voted favorably on the union proposition. 

TABLE 5. 

Tax Rates iou Ai.i. Cointv School Purposes ix Cot'xty High-S( uom. 

Districts. 

Mills 1-1.25 1.25-1.5 1.5-1.75 1.75-2. 2.-2.25 

North Central . . . . 1 1 

Other Accredited 1 2 2 2 

Xon-Accredited 4- Year 3 1 

Mills 2.25-2.5 2.5-2.75 2.75-3. 3&over Total 

North Central . . . . . . 2 

Other Accredited 4 1 . . . . 12 

Non-Accredited 4- Year . . 1 5 

The two measures of central tendency in distribution of these series that 

are of most significance are the median and the mode. Medians and modes 
for Tables 4 and 5, are given in Table 6. 

TABLE 6. 
Cextrai. Ti:m)E.N( ies of Tax Rates eou Am, S( iiooi, Piki-oses. 

Ordinary and Consol- jj . t->- <. • » /-. i. !->• ^ • ^ 

Schools. idated Districts. Union District.s. County Districts. 

Median. Mode. Median. Mode. Median. Mode. 

North Central 7.55 7-8 6.5 (?) 2. (?) 

Other Accredited 7.5 8-9 5.7 5-6 1.87 2.25-2.5 

Non-Accredited 4-Year.. 7.3 8.9 5.9 5-6 1.22 1.-1.25 

Three- Year 5.75 (?) 4. (?) ... 

Two-Year 6.3 6-7 ... 

One- Year 5.3 3-4 . . . . ... 

The interrogation point indicates no well defined mode, but a reference 

to the preceding tables will make clear the prevailing measures. 



t Otero County I''nion is not considered liere because it is practically a county 
liigh school. The rate taken tor local purposes in a union district Is the average 
of the local rates in the districts composing the union. 



SLh'VEY OF PLBLIC HIGH-HCHGOI. KDLCATIOX. IT 

111 general one must follow down to the short-course schools before he 
finds a diminution in the willingness of the community to tax itself for 
schools, though a falling off is apparent in the non-accredited class among 
county schools. 

The total rate of tax paid by any district for schools, however, is not 
exactly representative of its sentiment for education. The rate for county 
"general" and county "high school" is largely fixed by outsiders, so far as 
any one district is concerned, except in a few counties where one district 
dominates the whole. For this reason the rates voluntarily imposed by the 
districts upon themselves have been presented in Table 7. 

TABLE 7. 
Skii-Iiiposeu Rates for School Ptkposes in Ordixary and Consoi.iiiatei) 

DlSTRK TS. 

Mills Under 1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 

North Central 2 1 3 ^ 

Other Accredited .. .. 4 2 2 2 

Xon-Accredited 4-Year ....1 .. 3 2 2 7 9 

Three- Year . . 1 i ■ ■ ■'> 

Two-Year 1 1 2 2 5 6 G 

One-Year 1 6 12 4 12 9 2 

11 and 

Mills 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 over Total 

North Central 4 3 1 2 25 

Other Accredited 3 3 1 . . 1 18 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 5 5 1 3 . . 38 

Three-Year 1 1 .. ■• •■ 7 

Two-Year 1 1 ■ • • ■ 1 26 

One- Year ■ 4 1 . . . . 1 52 

Self-Imposei) Rates for School Pirposes i.\ U.xiox Districts. 

Under 

Mills 1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 Total 

North Central 1 ■■ 1 •• ■• 2 

Other Accredited 2 1 1 4 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 1 3 4 4.. 2 115 

Short-Course 1 1 1 •• 1 4 

Self-I.mposed Rates for Hiciii-Sc hool Pirpc ses in Cointy Distric is. 

^jills 5-.75 .75-1. 1.-1.25 1.25-1.5 1.5-1.75 1.75-2. Total 

North Central • ■ • 1 ^ ■ • • • 2 

Other Accredited 4 3 1 2 2 12 

Non-Accredited 4-Year ....3 1 .. •• .. 1 5 



18 UXIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

TABLE 8. 
Central Texdexcies of Self-Imposed Rates for School Purposes. 

Schools. ""fdateYD^'tScr'- Union Districts. County Districts. 

Median. Mode. Median. Mode. Median. Mode. 

North Central 6.75 6-7 5.5 (?) 1.25 (?) 

Other Accredited 6.5 3-4 5.1 4-5 .9 .5-.75 

Non- Accredited 4-Year. 6.45 6-7 4.9 4-6 .7 .5-.75 

Three-Year 5.5 5-6 3. (?) . . 

Two-Year 5.3 5-7 . . . . . . 

One- Year 4.25 2-5 . . . . . . 

Table 8 shows a pretty distinct decline in the feeling of responsibility 
for good schools from North-Central-Association down, though no great 
break is discernible until the short-course schools are reached. 

One striking fact should be mentioned with reference to the union 
schools, of which it was said above that theoretically they are composed 
of districts with comparable educational standards. In practice, it is found 
that different parts of a union district tax themselves very differently for 
local elementary schools. Slightly over half of the union districts include 
territory that taxes itself over twice as heavily as other parts of the same 
union district. The four districts in which the widest variation occurred 
showed the following maximum and minimum rates as borne by different 
portions of the district: 

Maximum. Minimum. 

Mills 2.1 .5 

Mills 4.3 1.0 

Mills 12.0 2.0 

Mills 13.17 1.97 

Comparisons of the mere tax rates for schools in different communities 
may be objected to on the ground that some districts are poorer in assessed 
valuation and richer in children than others, and hence must maintain 
higher school rates than their neighbors, even while supporting poorer 
schools. When the burden becomes especially heavy, talk of retrenchment 
becomes rife. Then comes the problem of where to retrench. Shall the 
schools suffer, or shall it be the streets? Good social policy dictates a fair 
division of revenues, whether they be scanty or otherwise, between the 
educational endeavors and the other social undertakings of the group. To 
bring this point out more plainly Tables 9 and 10 have been made to show 
the ratio between the total rate for education and that for county and 
state non-educational purposes. Municipal rates are not included, since 
hardly any school districts coincide with municipalities. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATIOX. 



19 



TABLE 9. 
Ratio of Total Rate for Schools to Rate for Other Couxty axu State 

Purposes. 
Ordinary and Consolidated 



Districts : 


Under .1 


> .5-1. 


1.-1.5 


1.5-2 


2.-2.5 


2.5-3. 


Total 


North Central 


3 


5 


13. 


4 








26 


Other Accredited 


1 


8 


6 


2 








18 


Non-Accredited 4-Year... 


3 


6 


22 


6 








38 


Three-Year 




3 

s 


1 
11 


1 
3 






1 


7 
26 
54 


Two-Year 


3 


One-Year 


6 


27 


19 








1 


Union Districts: 


















North Central 




1 


1 










2 


Other Accredited 




4 

6 


8 


1 








4 


Non-Accredited 4-Year. . . 




15 


Short-Course 


9 


1 


1 
Under 


.25 


.25-.50 


.50 


.75 


4 


County Districts: 




Total 


North Central 






1 




1 






2 


Other Accredited 






5 




6 




1 


12 


Non-Accredited 4-Year . . 






4 








1 


5 



TABLE 10. 

Central Texdexcies op Ratios of Total Tax Rates for Schools to Ratios 

FOR Other Couxty axd State Purposes. 



Schools. 



Ordinary and Con 
solidatec 
Median 



North Central 1.2 

Other Accredited 1. 

Non-Accredited 4-Year... 1.22 

Three-Year 1.25 

Two-Year 1.08 

One-Year 89 





Union Districts. 


—County Districts.-^ 


Mode. 


Median. 


Mode. 


Median. 


Mode. 


1.-1.5 


1. 


(?) 


.25 


(?) 


.5-] . 


.7.5 


.5-1. 


.29 


.25-.5 


1.-1.5 


1.1 


1.-1.5 


.15 


Under .25 


.5-1. 


.55 Under .5 






1.-1.5 










.5-1. 











Less diversity is apparent between schools when examined from this 
point of view than when compared as to their gross rates of taxation. In 
general, the smaller schools hold up toward the level of the larger ones or 
surpass it. They seem not so much to be less liberally inclined toward 
their schools as to have a habit of keeping tax rates low for all purposes. 
Only short-course and non-accredited county schools fall much below the 
better ones. 

B. COST OF OPERATION. 

Other things being equal, that school which economizes the salaries of 
teachers, crowds classes, and provides a plant without modern conveniences 
or equipment, must be less efflcient than its neighbor who pursues the oppo- 
site policy in these directions. This difference in efficiency is indicated 
quantitatively with considerable accuracy, unless a lack of wisdom prevails 



20 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

in expenditures, by the cost of operation per student. In the figures below, 
cost of operation is interpreted to mean the actual cost of running, the 
$1,000,000 which is gone at the end of the year without leaving anything 
that can be inventoried. It excludes permanent improvements, non-perish- 
able apparatus, books, payments or interest on bonds, sinking fund, interest 
on investment, etc. 

TABLE 11. 
Cost of Opkkatio.n Pick Sttdent i.v Averagk Attk.nda.nck.* 

Ordinary and Consolidated 
Districts: 

Under .$40 $4n-,50 $.50-60 $60-70 $70-80 $S0-9n $9i)-100 

North Central 2 4 7 4 2 

Other Accredited 3 3 4 3 1 

Non-Accredited 4-Year... 113 3 5 2 

Three-Year 1 

Two-Year 1 1 1 1 

$100-110 $110-120 $120-130 $130-140 $140-150 $1.50-160 

North Central 1 

Other Accredited 2 

Non-Accredited 4-Year. . . 3 



Three- Year 

Two-Year 

Union Districts: 



100 



1 

160 



Under $40 $40-50 $50-60 $60-70 $70-80 $80-90 $90 

North Central 2 . . 1 

Other Accredited .. 2 2 

Non-Accredited 4-Year.... 1 1 1 3 2.1 

Short-Course . . . . . . 1 

$100-110 $110-120 $120-130 $130-140 $140-150 $150 

North Central 

Other Accredited 

Non-Accredited 4-Year. .. .. 1 

Short-Course . . . . . .» . . 1 

County Districts: 

Under $40 $40-50 $50-60 $60-70 $70-80 $80-90 $90-100 

North Central . . 1 . . . . 1 

Other Accredited .. 2 .. 2 2 2 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 1 1 .. .. 1 1 

$100-110 $110-120" $120-130 $130-140 $140-150 $150-160 

North Central 

Other Accredited 3 . . 1 

Non- Accredited 4-Year. .. 1 i 



* Averaffe Attendance is tho average of attendance for fir.st, fifth and closing 
months of the year. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL KDUCATIOX. 21 

Even the wide range of this table fails to present the full difference in 
cost per student in our high schools. Small union schools in villaj-'.es prove 
very costly. One at Crook runs to $186 per student in average attendance 
for. the year, a three-year school at Agate runs to $191, and a four-year school 
at Limon to $213. But the Atwood Union High, with an annual cost of $1,075 
and three students in average attendance, leads all with a cost of $358 per 
student. 

TABLE 12. 

Central Tem)E.\(ib:,s of Cost of Operation Per Stt'dent i.\ Avekaoe 

Attendance. 

Ordinary and Consolidated Union 

Schools. Districts. Districts. 

Median. Mode. Median. Mode. 

North Central $67.25 $60-70 $47.50 $40-50 

Other Accredited 66.25 60-70 60. (?) 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 78. 70-80 66.70 60-70 

Short-Course 85. (?) 85. (?) 

Q«v,^«io County Districts All Districts. 

*'^"°°'^- Median. Mode. Median. Mode. 

North Central $70 (?) $63.75 $60-70 

Other Accredited 90 $100-110 71. 50-60 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 90 100-110 74.40 70-80 

Short-Course 85. (?) 

With a single minor exception, the lower the classification of the school, 
the greater the cost per student. This is not because small schools are more 
efficient than large ones or because money is wasted in small schools. Large- 
scale production is cheaper in education as well as elsewhere. The teacher, 
not the student, is approximately the unit of cost, until a certain size of 
school is reached. One might also infer from Table 12 that the union school 
is the cheapest sort, the county the dearest. First, however, let the 
schools be tabulated with reference to their average attendance.* 

TABLE 13. 
Cost of Operation Per Student in Average Attendance. 
Ordinary and Consolidated 
Districts: 

Under $40 $40-50 $50-60 $60-70 $70-80 $80-90 $90-100 

Av. Att. less than 10 2 

" " 10-25 3 3 2 2 

" " 25-50 1 2 2 2 4 2 2 

" " 50-100 1 4 2 3 

" " over 100 3 3 8 1 2 

* Average Attendance i.s the average of aUindaiKT loi- lirst, filth and closin.sj 
months of the year. 



22 



UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 



TABLE 13.— Concluded. 
$100-110 $110-120 $120-130 $130-140 $140-150 Over $150 



Av. Att. less than 10. 

" " 10-25 

" " 25-&0 

" " 50-100 

" " over 100 .... 



Union Districts: 

Av. Att. less than 10. 

" " 10-25 

" " 25-50 

" " 50-100 

" " over 100 . . . . 



Under $40 $40-50 $50-60 $60-70 $70-80 $80-90 $90-100 



Av. Att. less than 10. 

" " 10-25 

" " 25-50 

" " 50-100 

" " over 100 . . . . 



$100-110 $110-120 $120-130 $130 
1 



140 $140 



150 Over $150 
4 
1 



County Districts: 



Under $40 $40-50 $50-60 



-70 $70-80 $80-90 $90-100 



Av. Att. 


less than 
10-25 . . . 


10. . 


1 


« 


25-50 . . . 




. . . . 1 12 2 


« 


50-100 . . 




. . . . . . 1 


Av. Att. 


over 100 

less than 
10-25 . . . 


10. . 


.. .. 1 1 

$100-110 $110-120 $120-130 $130-140 $140-150 Over $150 

1 I 


« 


25-50 . . . 




1 1 


.< 


50-100 . . 




1 


., « 


over 100 







TABLE 14. 
Ceatrai. Tendencies of Cost of Operatiox Per Student ix Average 

Attendance. 



Schools. 
Av. Att. less than 10. 

" " 10-25 

" " 25-50 

" " 50-100 

over 100 



Ordinary and Consolidated Dists. Union Districts. 

Median. Mode. Median. Mode. 

... $47.50 $40-50 $190. (?) 

92.50 (?) 77.50 (?) 

73.75 70-80 62.50 $60-70 

65. 50-60 60. (?) 

63.10 60-70 51.25 40-50 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 23 

TABLE 14.— Concluded. 

Q„u„„i County Districts. All Districts. 

=>'^>^°'>^s- Median. Mode. Median. Mode. 

Av. Att. less than 10 $158. $40-50 

10-25 .• $125. (?) 90. (?) 

" " 25-50 90. (?) 75. ' 70-80 

" " 50-100 75. 50-60 66.70 50-60 

over 100 80. (?) 61.65 60-70 

Table 14 shows conclusively that the expenditures of county schools are 
most generous, and those of union schools least so. 

The cost of the high school may also be examined, and justly so, by way 
of the grades. The question of justice between grades and high school is 
not a small one. In places, sentiment for a high school is almost pathologi- 
cally strong, in others it is pathologically weak. In some places the ele- 
mentary school is stripped of support for the sake of a high school. 
While it is not possible at present to lay down rules for the precise adjust- 
ment of grades and high school financially, it may be of interest to set out 
the existing relations of the two in districts where high schools are main- 
tained. 

TABLE 15. 

Ratio of Cost of High School to Cost of Grades, by Schools. 
Aggregate Cost: .20-.30 .30-.40 .40-.50 .50-.60 .60-.70 .70-.80 .80-.90 .90-1.00 
Av. Att. less than 25.. 2 3 5 1 3 2 1 . . 

" " 25-50 2 5 5 2 1 1 1 1 

" " 50-100 ....2 1 3 6 .. 1 

" " over 100 .. 5 4 3 3 1 

Cost Per Student in Av. Attendance: Under 1.5 I. .5-2. 2.-2.5 2.5-3. 3.&over 

Av. Att. less than 25 1 4 3 3 

25-50 1 4 5 3 4 

" " 50-100 2 4 3 1 1 

" " over 100 4 S 3 

TABLE 16. 

Central Texdexcies of Ratios of Cost of High School to Cost of Grades. 

Aggregate Cost. Cost per Student in Average Attendance 
Schools. Median. Mode. Median. Mode. 

Av. Att. less than 25 47 .40-.50 2.58 2.-2.5 

" " 25-50 44 (?) 2.3 2.-2.5 

" " 50-100 51 .50-.60 1.94 1.5-2. 

" " over 100 375 .20-.30 1.72 1.5-2. 

The cost of a short-course school necessarily will bear a less ratio to 
that of its elementary school than is the case with a four-year school. For 
four-year schools the ratio can not be expected to remain constant for 
large and small schools. The grades reach the point of stationary or dimin- 
ishing expenditure per pupil before the high school can do so, in most cases 



24 VXIYEh'SITY OF COLO h' ADO. 

before the high school is in existence in the district. The larger the high 
school, the smaller, normally, should be the ratio of high school to grade 
cost, both in the aggregate and per student in average attendance, until a 
high school has some half dozen teachers at least. 

Tables 15 and 16 conform to this theory, except for the schools with an 
attendance between 50 and 100. At this stage the high school apparently 
ceases to be regarded as a formal organization merely, and demands for 
larger service and higher efficiency are made upon it. A more diversified 
curriculum, better equipment, a more highly paid and carefully selected 
teaching force are among the items of added expense. That this is the point 
at which schools usually become anxious for the accredited relation is also 
worth noting. Perhaps no better index could be found of the influence of 
the current system of accrediting. When a school rises far above the median 
of its class in this table, it may mean an over-emphasis of the high school, 
or poor standards in the grades; when it falls far below the median, an 
inefficient high school is the most likely explanation. 

C. INSTRUCTIONAL EQUIPMENT. 

Another sign of a tendency to progress is the expenditure for permanent 
equipment. The amount spent in a certain year may be by way of atone- 
ment for negligence of long standing, and is not so important as that expend- 
itures for improvements are regularly made. Outside Denver, Pueblo, Boul- 
der and several small schools there was spent in 1913-14 for instructional 
apparatus over $19,000, and for libraries $5,600. The latter figure meant the 
addition of some 3,500 volumes. Very few short-course schools finished the 
year with a better equipment than that with which they began it, but about 
half the union schools and non-accredited district schools showed some 
growth. Accredited districts made some advance in a majority of the cases, 
and county schools almost without exception strengthened themselves. Ap- 
paratus not only cost more money than libraries, but it was given attention 
in some phase in several more schools than saw fit to increase their libraries. 

The value of instructional equipment and the size of libraries in our high 
schools are expressed in large figures, even with rather incomplete returns. 
Over $125,000 of apparatus has been provided. This is apportioned 30% to 
Physics, 25% to Chemistry, 127c to Manual Training, 11% to commercial 
branches, 10% to Biology, 8% to Domestic Science, 3% to Geology, and 
2% to Physical Training.* This distribution does not show the relative cost 
of equipping for different subjects, since som? are taught much more gen- 
erally than others. 

For accredited schools the typical equipment in Biology is valued at 
about $150, for Chemistry at $350. for Physics at a trifle less than $350, for 
commercial branches at $300, for Manual Training at $400, for Domestic 
Science at $500. These amounts it may be are somewhat above the mini- 
mum requisite to equip a young and growing school for standard work in 



* For Manual Training. Domestic Science and commercial branches, tlie same 
equipment serves for botli grades and high school. Figures here are the total for 
the entire .scliool. 



t^URVEY OF PUBLIC H IGH-t^VHOOL EDUCATIOX. 25 

these lines. Very little apparatus for Agriculture exclusively has as yet 
been purchased by schools giving courses in that subject. A few schools 
have some historical maps and are not compelled in class work to rely upon 
small maps hidden in the text. 

Not many schools have a gymnasium, and of those only a very few 
have invested much in apparatus for physical training. Logan County High 
School, however, has already placed in its gymnasium materials running 
into the thousands of dollars. Many school boards spend money annually 
on the support of athletics, but this is done principally by way of furnish- 
ing bats, balls and goals, or in meeting the deficit of the athletic associa- 
tion at the close of the season. The idea of purchasing baseballs by the 
dozen out of public money, and of passing them out one by one to the boys 
as the old balls were lost or worn out would have been curious indeed a 
decade ago; but the attitude is changing rapidly. Much greater generosity 
is prevented only by the feeling that management of and responsibility for 
athletics is an excellent training for the student body. 

The libraries reported total 90,000 volumes. Over 30% of this is lit- 
erature, poetry or fiction; 18% is history and biography; 5% is science, 
and 5% is reference. Ten per cent, listed as "Government Documents" and 
an equal amount as "Miscellaneous", is of very little worth. 

Though there is a large absolute and relative increase in both library 
and apparatus each year, there is still much inadequacy of equipment. This 
would seem to be due to two causes: first, and chiefly, money is wasted: 
second, there is great inequality among schools. 

As to the waste of money, much expensive apparatus is bought when 
simple pieces would suffice. The expensive pieces are often delicate, sooi! 
get out of order, and are not repaired. Some pieces are set aside by teach- 
ers who do not understand how to operate them. In the library many books 
listed as "Science" are only general texts, which students rarely consult. 
The number of reference books is encouraging, but many of thom are out- 
of-date encyclopedias. Many sets for which fancy prices have sometimes 
been paid are of little value. There is a disposition to purchase histories 
in sets, histories often of the highest value to the research student and rep- 
resentative of the best that historical scholarship has done, but frequently 
of a style that does not attract high-school students. There are evidences 
that the fallacy that somehow there is virtue in just spending money on 
education still persists. 

As to inequality of equipment, while the median of total equipment for 
accredited schools is well over $1,000, four accredited schools have less than 
$500 so invested. The median of the library of accredited schools is about 
1,000 volumes, but thirteen accredited schools have a library of less than 500 
volumes, and several of the thirteen are not in touch with any other facili- 
ties. In the non-accredited schools conditions are generally poor with ref- 
erence to Physics and Chemistry, the only laboratory sciences regularly 
taught. Twelve schools giving Physics and five giving Chemistry have out- 
fits of less value than $100 for each. 



26 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 



III. THE STUDENT BODY. 

The general facts regarding the size, class and sex distribution of the 
enrollment of our high schools appear in Tables 17 and 18. The data is in- 
complete through the omission of a few short-course schools, one small non- 
accredited four-year school, and the Central High School of Pueblo. Fail- 
ure of totals to tally from left to right is due to the failure of some schools 
to report by classes or by sexes, and to the ignoring in these summaries of 
about two per cent of the student body, who are reported as "Special" or 
"Unclassified". 

A. TOTAL ENROLLMENT. 

About 17,000 students, or approximately seven per cent of the school 
population, were enrolled in Colorado high schools in 1913-14. In round 
numbers, 25% were in Denver, 45% in other North-Central-Association 
schools, 15% in the remaining accredited schools, and over 10% in non- 
accredited four-year schools. About one student in 2^ is carrying on his 
work in a school offering less than tha customary four years. Not over 15% 
of the enrollment lies outside of accredited schools. 

In comparison with the ordinary (plus the few consolidated) districts, 
county and union schools are still of minor importance. None of the fifteen 
largest cities of the state are in either a union or a county district, and 
several of the counties with largest population have no union district within 
their borders. County and union schools, nevertheless, are increasing in 
number. A census five years from the present will doubtless show a fur- 
ther increase in number and a material growth in enrollment, especially for 
counrty schools. These two classes of schools are of interest principally be- 
cause they stand for educational extension from the standpoint both of ter- 
ritory and curriculum. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



27 



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Sl'ltVI-JY OF PlBlJr HIGH-SfhOOL ELUVATIOX. 2i' 

B. ATTENDANCE. 

Very little emphasis has been placed explicitly on enrollment and at- 
tendance in schemes of accrediting schools. While it has been insisted that 
there shall be a certain number of teachers, it has not been insisted that 
there be a specified number of students. But in measuring the efficiency of 
either a machine or an institution it is not reasonable to overlook either the 
quantity or the quality of the product. Though more thought has been given 
to the latter, it is less susceptible to measurement, so special attention will 
here be given to the former. 

The extent to which the young people of a community are in its high 
school may be measured in terms of total enrollment, average enrollment, 
average number belonging, or average attendance. The latter is here taken 
as the more reliable. It is the time spent in school rather than the fact the 
boy was sometimes there that concerns us. Even with average attendance 
there is a small error, inasmuch as some schools count presence and absence 
only by full days, while others note the half-days. 

In Table 19 the per cent of school population in average attendance in 
different classes of schools is given for all except short-course schools. Obvi- 
ously a two-year or three-year school is not comparable to a four-year school 
in this respect. Average attendance, for the purpose of uniformity in this 
report, is the average of the daily attendance for the first, middle and clos- 
ing months of the year. Average attendance, however, had to be reduced in 
the proportion that the number of tuition students bore to the total enroll- 
ment before it could fairly be considered in relation to school population. 

Except for the union schools there is no large difference between classes 
according to their recognition as North-Central-Association, accredited, or 
non-accredited, but there is a large difference between schools of different 
legal organization. Distance is one prime factor in producing this difference. 

TABLE 19. 
Pb:r Cent ok School Poiti.ation i.\ Avkk.vge Atti:.M).\.\( i:. 

Ordinary and Consolidated 

Districts: Under 14 and 

2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 12-14 over 

North Central 1 6 3 8 4 1 

Other Accredited 1 2 1 3 3 4 

Non-Accredited 4-Year. . . 3 . . 7 2 9 . . 3 

Total 4 3 14 8 20 8 4 

Union Districts: 

North Central 1 ^ 

Other Accredited • • •• 2 2 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 . . 

Total 1 3 2 4 5 4 1 



30 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 







TABLE 


19.- 


-Concln 


\eA. 








Qty Districts: 




Under 












14 and 






2 


2-4 


4-6 


6-8 


8-10 


10-12 


12-14 over 


North Central 








1 


1 








Other Accredited . . . 


1 


3 


3 


3 


2 






Non-Accredited 


4-Yea] 




2 




1 


1 






Total 




1 


5 


4 


5 


3 







TABLE 20. 
Cextral Tendencies of Per Cent of School Population in Average 

Attendance. 

„. , *^^^i"fl^?,"'l^*'r - Union Districts. County Districts. 

Schools. sohdated Districts. 

Median. Mode. Median. Mode. Median. Mode. 

North Central 10.37 10-12 10.5 10-12 6. ? 

Other Accredited 10. 12-14 8. ? 5.3 ? 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 10. 10-12 7.5 8-10 5.25 2-4 

But if distance makes a union school drop below a district school, and 
causes county schools to fall lovk^er still, it can militate against district 
schools, too. A large consolidated district or one In which there is no large 
center of population can not compare favorably with small districts or a 
clustered population so long as school population is the basis. True, the 
simple fact that the young people are not there is a weakness in the school, 
but if one wishes to push on further and ascertain whether the weakness 
arises from internal or external causes, he will find it of interest to com- 
pare high-school attendance with grade attendance. Grade children are 
mostly under the compulsory education taw, though no one vouches for its 
absolute enforcement anywhere, and it is fair to assume that distance will 
show its effect on their attendance. But if distance interferes seriously with 
attendance, it will not militate so much against the older pupils. For this 
reason a district that shows poorly in Table 19 may show well in Table 21. 

TABLE 21. 
Ratio of Average Attend.\nce in High School to Average Attendance in 

Grades. 

.3 and 
.15 .15-.2 .2-. 25 .25-.3 over Median Mode 
19 5 2 1 .195 .15-.2 
14 4 11 .188 ? 

5 7 4 2 2 .175 .15-.2 

With distance thus eliminated, the schools of the higher classification 
.still do slightly the better at getting their children to the high school. In 
passing upon the efficiency of any school, however, it must be borne in mind 
that lax enforcement of the compulsory law would run up the ratio in Table 
21. This would have to be checked by an examination of the distribution of 



Ordinary and Consolidated 


Under 


Districts: 


.1 .1 


North Central 




Other Accredited 


3 


Non-Accredited 4-Year.. 


3 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATIOX. 31 

schools to outlying parts of the district, provision for transportation, and 
per cent of school population in average attendance in the grades. 

Stability and regularity of attendance are other factors that cooperate 
with quantity of attendance to make for efficiency. So long as the work of a 
high school is organized on an annual or semi-annual basis, a school which 
has a certain 10% of its school population in average attendance every day 
is far more efficient than one which has one 10% in attendance one day and 
another 10% another day. A school which has 10% every day is more effi- 
cient than one which has 15% and 5% on alternate days, or reaches a very 
high mark in the winter only to disintegrate in the spring. The desirable 
qualities in this respect may be estimated in two ways. The ratio of the 
average attendance for the year to the average of the enrollment for first, 
middle and closing month of the year has been used to check the regularity 
of attendance of students while enrolled. If desirable this ratio could be 
taken month by month to locate points of strength and weakness. The 
stability of the school is indicated by the variation in attendance from 
month to month, taking that of the first month, for purposes of convenience, 
as 100. By such means superintendents and principals might take careful 
account to ascertain the effect of athletics, of social affairs, and opportuni- 
ties for outside employment. 

TABLE 22. 
Ratio of Average Attendance to Average E.nrollmext. 

Schools Under .85 .85-.90 .90-.95. .95&over Median Mode 

Ordinary and Consolidated 

Districts 5 9 25 21 .932 .90-.95 

Union Districts 5 4 8 3 .906 .90-.95 

County Districts 1 .. 6 5 .942 .90-.95 

North Central 5 13 .958 .90-.95 

Other Accredited 4 16 7 .93 .90-.95 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 9 9 13 7 .904 .90-.95 

Short-Course 2 .. 5 2 .925 .90-.95 

The fact mentioned above, that average attendance is computed differ- 
ently in different portions of the State, accounts for an abnormally high 
ratio in a few schools. Uniformity in keeping records would be a valuable 
step in advance, because it would permit more accurate comparisons among 
schools. Table 22 gives data on fewer schools than most other tables, 
because it was impossible to secure the enrollment for the different months, 
due to a frequent custom of carrying only the total enrollment to date for 
the year. The usual minor classifications of schools were therefore omitted. 

The students of county high schools seem to be more regular in attend- 
ance than those of district schools. Many have come from a distance and 
at sacrifice, hence with a purpose. One might expect the same to be true 
of union schools, but there the students do not often board away from home. 



32 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

They attempt to come and go daily, a practice which shows in the results. 
The student who is away from home for the week istalso less likely to be 
detained from school for work. Schools show a regularity of attendance 
corresponding to their standing. This is, in part at least, attributable, not 
to intrinsic excellence or morale, but to the location of recognized schools 
in centers of population, rendering school accommodations more accessible. 

TABLE 23. 
Atte.\u.\.\( E Fou Fifth Month o.\ Scale of 100 fok First Month. 
Under Over 
Schools. 70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-110 110 Median .Mode 
Ordinary and Consol- 
idated Districts 2 2 11 31 19 8 92.3 9n-100 

Union Districts 2 .. .5 4 4 5 97.5 ? 

County Districts 2 .. 11 2 1 95.4 90-100 

North Central 3 17 5 1 95.9 90-100 

Other Accredited 5 12 9 3 97.9 90-100 

Non-Accredited 4-Year.. 2 3 6 15 9 8 97. 90-100 

Short-Course 2 1 2 2 2 2 92.5 ? 

TABLE 24. 
Attenu.\nce for Closing Month ox Scale of 100 for First Month. 
Under Over 
Schools. 70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-110 110 Median Mode 
Ordinai'y and Consol- 
idated Districts 5 10 20 21 9 4 89.7 90-100 

Union Districts 4 2 G 2 2 3 85.9 90-100 

County Districts 1 3 6 3 2 1 86.7 90-100 

North Central '. 9 12 6 . . 93.7 90-100 

Other Accredited 3 11 8 4 3 90.6 SO-90 

Non-Accredited 4-Year.. 6 9 10 6 3 4 84. Sn-90 

Short-Course 4 3 2 . . 1 73.3 Under 70 

All classes of schools hold together well until past the middle of the 
year. The differences that exist between the various medians at the fifth 
month are not serious. But toward the close of the term lai'ger differences 
appear. The accredited schools then manifest much the greater stability. 
At the fifth month North-Central-Association schools were below the smaller 
accredited ones, due to the filling up of several of the latter at the approach 
of winter, but the larger schools lead at the close. The North-Central-Asso- 
ciation is the most nearly homogeneous in type. 

Some very excellent records were made by individual schools. Among 
the best were the following pairs of figures for fifth and closing months: 
104 and 100, 103 and 100, 99 and 100. 102 and 100, 98 and 99. Among the 
worst were such pairs as 225 and 150, 129 and 145, 45 and 78. Of course the 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATIOX. 33 

climate or some other element not under human control may give a school 
its distinctive annual variations, but these nevertheless decrease efficiency 
and should be combated with all energy. 

Whether a fair proportion of our school population is in high schools 
is a question of importance and difficulty. The most reasonable gauge is 
the record of other states, but allowance must always be made for topog- 
raphy, climate, density of population and the age limits of the school cen- 
sus. Among Western States, after making correction for different defini- 
tions of school population, Colorado is exceeded by Utah, Nevada, Wash- 
ington, California, and probably Oregon, in per cent of school population 
in high school. Colorado is almost exactly on a par with Kansas and 
Nebraska in this respect. On the whole, our showing is fairly creditable, 
but not extraordinary — far from it in some sections of the State.* While 
education is so largely a local concern, judgments of states as wholes are 
less important, however, than of equalization of opportunities within states. 

C. SIZE OF SCHOOLS. 

North-Central-Association schools are, in general, much the largest. The 
smallest enrolls 72, and but four drop below 100. Other accredited schools 
run from 328 down to 26. Nearly two-thirds lie between 50 and 100. Non- 
accredited four-year schools show a group of six between 60 and 65 stu- 
dents, with the others distributed all the way down to three rural schools 
enrolling less than ten. Three-year schools enroll from 7 to 30. Two-year 
schools range from 4 to 33, but over half have less than 10. Reports from 
fifty one-year schools show one with 16 students, but no others over 10. 
Fourteen had but 1 student and fifteen but 2. 

Following the other classification of schools, ordinary districts present 
the full range; union schools all fall below 200, with almost half between 
25 and 100; county schools show a maximum of 328, and a minimum of 22, 
with considerably over half between 50 and 100. 

D. CLASS DISTRIBUTION. 

Per cents are of chief concern in the examination of class distribution, 
gross numbers of students having a significance only to caution against 
conclusions based on too small bodies of data. Totals for ordinary dis- 
tricts can not be given too much weight, since the proportion in the lower 
years is swelled by the several short-course schools, and the proportion in 
the upper grades is correspondingly diminished. Individual schools, except 
those in Denver, have not been analyzed in per cents. Some schools have 
numerous short-course neighbors from which students come for the latter 
years of their course, thus disturbing materially the normal class distribu- 
tion. Students also leave non-accredited schools for a neighboring accred- 
ited institution, or else seek some distant accredited school of high stand- 



* Raw material for extensive comparative studies between states can be found 
in the tables of age distribution and urban population of the U. S. Census and the 
reports of tlie U. S. Commissioner of Education. 



34 UXIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

ing. This movement almost destroys senior classes in some small schools, 
while it enables larger and better known schools to get some undeserved 
credit for holding their students in the high school. Hence in applying 
the test of normal class distribution to any school to measure its efficiency, 
tuition students must be eliminated. 

If allowance is made for the skewing of the distribution curve by en- 
rollment in short-course schools, the ordinary districts show a freshman 
class almost exactly propoi'tionate to that of the county schools, while the 
union schools have four or five per cent more in ninth grade. Union districts 
suffer a very serious loss, over 40% from ninth to tenth grade, ordi- 
nary and county districts only about .30%. The loss of ordinary dis- 
tricts from tenth to eleventh declines somewhat, that of union districts 
declines greatly, but the county school seems here to experience its critical 
period. Each kind of school exhibits its greatest stability over the gap 
from eleventh to twelfth year, though defections in the ordinary districts 
are still serious. Of 750 seniors in the Denver schools in 1913-14, only 601 
graduated. Records for other schools on this last point are not available. 
Union schools carry from the first to the last year only about one student 
of three, ordinary districts increase this to two of five, and county schools 
bring it up nearly to one of two. 

By smaller divisions, one of the most striking facts is the extent to 
which Denver schools and the small group of North-Central-Association 
county schools carry their freshmen into the work of the second year. The 
heaviest losses at this point are in all types of union schools, the "other 
accredited" district schools, and the few non-accredited county schools. 
The last show a mortality of nearly 50%, probably an abnormal figure, 
since three of the four schools in this class are developing rapidly at 
present, drawing in more students and tending to show the larger gap 
next year between sophomore and junior years. 

To trace all variations in each subdivision from year to year is of 
questionable value, but one point deserves special mention. Using either 
the totals, or the summaries of ordinary, union, and county districts sepa- 
rately, the per cents in the senior year invariably show the following rank 
from highest to lowest: "Other accredited", North-Central Association 
except Denver, non-accredited four-year schools. Under each classifica- 
tion "other accredited" has a higher per cent of seniors than Denver. The 
holding capacity of the smaller accredited school is manifested almost as 
plainly in its smaller per cent of freshmen than is found in other schools 
except Denver. 

Three-year schools appear very unstable, possibly because each one is a 
four-year school in embryo. A student in one of them does not feel that 
he is completing a high-school course, and if he is ambitious to go else- 
where, he is apt to leave before his third year. Two-year schools make a 
much better showing in retention of students, better than some classes of 
four-year schools. Many of them have been operating as such for several 
years. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 35 

E. SEX DISTRIBUTION. 

Unless special factors affect one sex more than the other, the enroll- 
ment of boys in Colorado high schools in conformity to school population 
should be about two per cent above that for girls. This is shown by Table 
18 to be the reverse of the fact. In the entire table there is only one place 
where boys exceed girls, viz., in the ninth year of the small group of two 
schools listed as North-Central-Association county schools. For the sum- 
maries to the right of the table the disparity shows for classes of schools 
running over 500 students, no greater variation than three per cent either 
way from the general average of 44.1%. Denver schools, with their 
emphasis on athletics and vocational studies, have for that reason or some 
other attracted more than the normal number of boys, but unfortunately, 
in the absence of sex distribution by classes, it is impossible to tell whether 
this is simply drawing power or holding power. Non-accredited four-year 
schools draw boys most poorly, and North-Central-Association schools have 
no advantage in this respect over "other accredited" schools. 

The proportion of the sexes from the ninth to the twelfth year under- 
goes a definite shift. On the whole, it is very near 8:10 in favor of the girls, 
but in the ninth year it is 9:10, and in the twelfth it is but a trifle over 6:10. 
Less than 29% of the boys remain until their senior year, as against over 
42% of the girls. 

The location of this shift is not specific. Both boys and girls suffer a 
smaller absolute loss as the years pass. The sophomore, junior, and senior 
classes have respectively, 59, 66, and V3% as many boys as the classes 
immediately below them. For girls, the corresponding figures are 71. 74, 
and 80%. The loss of boys exceeds that of girls only a little more in the 
first part of the course than in the last. 

For different classes of schools some important differences appear, 
which are given for whatever significance may attach to them. Boys are 
held much better in small accredited schools than in North-Central-Asso- 
ciation or non-accredited schools. The North-Central-Association school has 
no more power, or at least success, in retaining boys than the non-accredited 
school, possibly because the attractions and possibilities presented to the 
boy from the outside are stronger and more diverse in the North-Central- 
Association district. County schools retain boys better than other types. 
The most difficult gap for the boys seems to be the jump from the tenth 
to the eleventh year in non-accredited four-year schools, the easiest is the 
transition from the eleventh to the twelfth grade in the smaller accredited 
schools. Girls show much less variability, just as on the whole they 
are less erratic in the adolescent period. 

It is at least plausible that conditions are enough different between 
communities to warrant careful study of the "boy problem" in each partic- 
ular school, that critical points may be determined and met. Such studies 
must extend over more than a single year, the longer the better. Other- 
wise occasional and baffling facts of the most unusual character will be 



36 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

mistaken for significant plienomena. For example, two schools enrolling 
between SO and 100 had in their sophomore years fifteen boys and two 
girls, and nineteen boys and eight girls, respectively. This niost startling 
fact is proved to be merely occasional by the presence of six boys and ten 
girls, and six boys and seventeen girls, respectively, in their junior classes. 

F. PHYSICAL WELFARE. 

The promotion of physical welfare of the student body by exercise or 
training has not been a generally assumed responsibility. The growing lib- 
erality of schools in appropriating some money for athletic supplies was 
referred to in a preceding section, but this affected only that voluntary sort 
of physical exercise which prevails among the young everywhere. The pro- 
vision for exercise under instruction as a regular part of the school pro- 
gram is not general, but those who will are left to play, the outcome being 
violent and sometimes excessive participation by a few. 

Three of fifty non-accredited schools and twenty-five of sixty accredited 
ones reported some definite provision for exercise under the auspices of the 
school. In a couple of schools instruction is offered for girls only. It is 
made elective in over four-fifths of the cases, and when prescribed is for girls 
only in nearly a half of the cases. The classes are usually divided between 
indoor and outdoor exercises, but a few schools use only the outdoor be- 
cause they have no indoor space, while a few remain indoors because the 
character of the work suggests that as the best course. 

The most common arrangement of the program calls for exercise once 
or twice a week. One school assigns physical training five periods per week, 
and one finds time for ten. This time is spent in various ways, but com- 
petitive games of different kinds are resorted to most frequently. In the 
order of their popularity these games are baseball, basketball, track, football, 
tennis, indoor baseball, and volley ball. Gymnasium work, presumably with 
apparatus, is mentioned five times, dumb-bells and calisthenics three times 
each, and dancing once. 

The conduct of athletics was studied to determine the consensus of opin- 
ion relative to interscholastic contests. Dissatisfaction with interscholastic 
games has arisen ostensibly for several reasons: (1) the expense of trips, 
(2) the poor sportsmanship of athletes and student body, (3) the discredit- 
able conduct of teams on trips, (4) the magnification of the importance of 
games in the eyes of students, to the partial or total eclipse of their school 
work, (5) the relatively few students who secure any benefit. Nevertheless 
interscholastic games are still prevalent. Their relative prevalence is made 
clear by the following figures in answer to the question: Is emphasis placed 
upon inter-school or intra-school athletics? 



Accredited schools . . . . 
Non-accredited schools 



r-school 


Intra-school 


Both 


Neither 


25 


25 


11 


1 


15 


4 


3 


7 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 37 

The results suggest that the size of the school is the determining factor. 
The majority of the high schools of the state are so small that ti.ey must 
choose between interscholastic games and none. 

Physical examination is made of most of the high-school students, as 
provided by law, but eight non-accredited and thirteen accredited schools re- 
port no such examinations. Dissatisfaction is expressed in many quarters 
with most of tha tests outlined on the official blanks. Tests aside from 
those of sight are unsatisfactory, but a number of men feel that gross de- 
fects, especially of vision, have been uncovered by the examinations, and that 
valuable treatment has been secured as a direct consequence of the notifica- 
tion of the parent. Medical inspection is beginning in a half-dozen schools. 
As yet it is occasional or semi-occasional. Doubtful cases are sent at once 
to a physician. Students absent on account of illness are compelled to pre- 
sent a certificate from a doctor on returning to school. Sometimes an entire 
room or school is examined for traces of a contagious disease that has al- 
ready broken out in the community. 

The hygiene of the school plant as a means both of economizing the 
child's energy and preventing the inroads of disease is stressed more and 
more each year. Four international congresses on school hygiene have now- 
been held. It was therefore judged advisable to carry along with the survey 
a number of pertinent inquiries bearing on the school plant. The discus- 
sion below is based upon a tallying of the sheets of sixty schools chosen at 
random in equal numbers from North-Central-Association, smaller accred- 
ited, and non-accredited four-year schools. 

The school site usually has some trees, but less than half of any kind 
of schools have numerous large trees upon or about the site. Many have 
some small trees which in due time will protect more or less from sun and 
wind. 

The site is too small for any games of a group character in five North- 
Central-Association, three other accredited, and one non-accredited school. 
All kinds of games can be played, however, on the grounds of over a third 
of the schools of each class. The remainder of the sites are small, allowing 
only for tennis, basketball, or indoor baseball. Lack of space is a handicap 
only ill the larger schools, where the students must often go a considerable 
distance to gain open ground and then submit to the most wretched condi- 
tions for training — no suitable shelter for dressing and no opportunity for 
bathing. In smaller towns it is never far to a good place for games, and the 
facilities offered by the school building for dressing, etc., can still be utilized. 
A few schools have large athletic fields, well laid out. One county school 
lias track, surrounding football and baseball fields, and a grandstand seating 
several hundred people. 

Two specific questions were asked with regard to the proximity of nui- 
sances. Two very large city schools are well within a hundred feet of street 
car tracks, on thoroughfares along which much other traffic passes. Another 
North-Central-Association school is about a hundred fifty feet from a paved 



38 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

street traveled by cars and many vehicles. From noise-, smoke-, and odor- 
producing industries there is scarcely any trouble, though a branch of one 
very large school had to pass a part of its year in a building, the first story 
of which was used as a garage. Five schools were found within one to two 
hundred feet of stables, most of which were well kept. The school stable in 
one instance was near the building, and in another an enormous manure pile 
was across the street not over a hundred feet from the building. 

The topography of the state makes the problem of a water supply more 
simple than in many other parts of the country. A public supply is avail- 
able at nearly every accredited school and at a majority of the non-accredited 
ones. Some schools' haul their water from adjacent towns at no small ex- 
pense. Six of twenty non-accredited schools use wells, driven or open. In 
five instances wells are not over a hundred feet from outdoor toilets. Sani- 
tary fountains are found in nearly all accredited schools, and in most of the 
others. Individual cups were used to dip or catch the water in all remaining 
schools except three. At those three the common cup was found, but in only 
one case with the certain knowledge of the principal. Only in certain non- 
accredited schools were receptacles used. Usually they were tanks or stone 
jars, cleaned at intervals ranging from daily to very infrequently. In two 
schools the open pail was found, in one of them filled from a creek on which 
privies abutted farther up. In the sixty schools only three cases were learned 
of in which the water supply had ever been contaminated. So general is 
the feeling of security that the water is regularly tested hardly anywhere. 
The principal need now is stricter precaution against the communication of 
disease from pupil to pupil in the school by way of the cup or pail. Some ot 
the fountains run very feebly, and children were seen to take a portion of 
the bulb into their mouths when drinking. 

Toilet accommodations are sharply differentiated between accredited and 
non-accredited schools. Over four-fifths of the former have comfortable in- 
door toilets connected with sewer system (or cesspool) ; over four-fifths of the 
latter have the ordinary outdoor closets. The outdoor vaults are rarely 
cleaned oftener than once a year, and in several places the removal of the 
closet to a new location, when the vault is full, is the customary practice. The 
majority of the vaults offer easy entrance to house-flies. Toilets are disin- 
fected generally in the larger schools, not in the smaller ones. The ordinary 
disinfectant is chloride of lime, sometimes combined with creosote, carbolic 
acid, or dilute sulphuric acid. Fresh lime and formaldehyde ai'e also used 
separately. The application of the disinfectant is very irregular with some 
schools, but about half the accredited schools disinfect weekly or oftener. 
Several have types of the "constant-drip" disinfecting apparatus. The fre- 
quency with which toilets are scrubbed correlates closely, by chance or other- 
wise, with their standing. Most North-Central-Association schools attend to 
this matter weekly or oftener, most non-accredited schools at longer intervals 
than a week or never. Small accredited schools fall definitely between the 
other two classes. The outdoor toilet is the one that suffers principally from 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATIOX. 39 

obscene marking or cutting. Approaches in several places are not properly 
screened. A common towel hangs in a third of the high schools, and usually 
is not changed daily. North-Central-Association schools lead in the installa- 
tion of this convenience of shady hygienic standing. 

Protection against fire or panic was studied only in buildings with over 
fifty students above the first story. Hence it touched few non-accredited 
schools. Scarcely any of our high schools can be termed "fire-traps". A 
majority of the buildings have two exits from all rooms above the first story, 
hold fire drills as often as once a month, and can be emptied in a minute or 
less. Almost no doors fail to open toward exits. The average width of stairs 
is five feet per hundred students using the same. Twenty-three buildings 
have no external escapes, as against thirteen with iron or steel stairs, or 
some other device. One school uses a metallic chute, another has iron lad- 
ders, a third has wooden stairs. The wooden stairs were fairly satisfactory 
because the building was brick. Less satisfactory is the prevalence of build- 
ings with a single stairway. To be sure, these do not run over two stories 
and several of them have external escapes. Four stairways were located 
directly over the furnace room, though in each case there was some other 
means of exit. 

Cloakrooms are used by the sexes indiscriminately rather than the re- 
verse. This is occasioned by the fact that most of the hanging room is in 
the central corridors or separated from them by low partitions. A third 
of the schools have less than seven inches linear wall space per pupil and 
some run down to three inches. So short an allowance means that wraps 
from all kinds of homes are hung over one another in the most promiscuous 
fashion. One school has individual lockers, and four have the individual 
hanging spaces from eight to eleven inches wide separated by wooden parti- 
tions which may completely prevent contact between the wraps of different 
students. Cloakrooms separate from the main corridors are sometimes not 
ventilated at all, and emit the familiar stuffy, sickening smell. 

"With reference to the lighting of about 600 rooms, several facts appear. 
Buildings of the larger schools show the influence of modern ideas in school 
architecture in the direction from which the light comes with respect to 
the pupil, the light ratio, and the reasonableness of width of room. The 
figures below apply to rooms that fall below the standards set to their left: 

North Other Ac- Non-Accred- 
Per cent of Rooms. Central, credited, ited 4-Year. 

Admitting any light from the right 7.0 23.8 36.0 

With a light ratio under 1:5 21.0 64.9 62.0 

With width over twice height of window tops 17.5 37.0 48.0 

Over two-thirds of the rooms are furnished with the opaque, dark-green 
shades found in homes. Rooms lighted from the south must submit to direct 
sunlight in some parts, or be poorly lighted in others, because the shades 
have been drawn. Venetian blinds used in a few schools meet the prob- 



40 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

lem of light, but they present mechanical difficulties and are objected to 
as collectors of dust. Translucent shades are coming into some of the 
newer buildings. No definite results have come from a study of the points 
of the compass from which light is admitted to school rooms, save that in 
general east and west are preferred by architects to north and south. 
Walls are tinted in all imaginable combinations, and papered and painted. 
The light sand-finish with no coloration is still most popular. Bluish 
and greenish tints, light rather than dark, light cream and buff, are- next 
in vogue. 

Direct steam heat is used in thirty-six out of sixty buildings, furnace 
and hot water coming next. Indirect steam and stoves also are found. Four 
buildings containing non-accredited schools were heated by unjacketed 
stoves. A fourth of the buildings can not be kept up to 68 degrees F. in 
coldest weather. This trouble correlates inversely with the standing of the 
schools; North-Central-Association schools have least of it and non-accred- 
ited most. 

Windows are the main reliance in ventilation. Many "gravity systems" 
work intermittently or not at all. The direct-indirect system, now for- 
bidden by law in some States, is used in 10 per cent, of the buildings. A 
half-dozen buildings have a plenum fan, and two an exhaust. That good 
intentions miscarry is attested by the presence of one plenum arrangement 
which has never been used because there is no day current furnished by 
the local power plant. The most archaic feature of the supposedly better 
buildings, those used for high schools, is the location of inlets and outlets. 
These are not usually on the same side of the room, but are at or near the 
floor on opposite sides. In three accredited schools the windows are the 
inlets. In four or five the proper arrangement is reversed, the inlets being 
near the floor and the outlets high up. About a fourth of the schools have 
disposed of the matter as contemporary sanitary science requires. 

Four schools introduce the air over water pans and thus secure humid- 
ity. Furnaces are the easiest heating apparatus with which to do this. 
At one modern plant the air is washed by s.pray. With steam heat, reli- 
ance is placed upon the small amount of moisture that can escape from 
the radiator. 

Daily sweeping and dusting appear to be the invariable practice. A 
vacuum cleaner is used in one school, but elsewhere it is brush or broom 
or both. The brush is favored for several reasons. Dusting is done by 
feather duster and cloths, oiled, dry, or damp. They are given in the order 
of their occurrence. If it be granted that the feather duster is the worst 
and the oiled cloth the best, the standing of schools once again correlates 
precisely with their dusting methods. 

Sweeping compounds, consisting of patented material or oiled sawdust, 
are used in a majority of the schools, even in many where the floor is oiled. 
The floor oils differ so in thickness and composition, and are applied so 
differently that conclusions can hardly be drawn as to the common practice. 
Scrubbing is usually done just before oiling floors, where floors are oiled. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 41 

Those who care little for their floors in one respect are generally lax in 
all. Three of the forty accredited schools admitted that their floors are 
never scrubbed, and one superintendent plead oiled floors as the excuse. 

A very few small schools make no effort whatever to keep down dust. 
Probably the dirtiest room in the state is one occupied by about fifty 
high-school students. No sweeping compound is ever used, the floors ai'e 
not oiled, dusting is done with a dry cloth, the school site is plain adobe, 
there is no scraper, mat, or sidewalk on the premises. While this is an 
extreme instance, there is a deplorable lack of mats, scrapers, and walks 
in the smaller schools, which lack that kills whatever ambition a janitor 
may carry into his work. 

Fumigation by approved methods is expensive; the imminence of an 
epidemic is almost necessary to bring it about. Naive notions of disinfec- 
tion exist in some quarters. High schools have hung upon their walls small 
containers, which are reputed to possess high power, but have not even a 
perceptible odor. Formaldehyde in some form or combination is the resort 
where fumigation is really taken seriously. 

The single desk is about universal for study purposes, but chairs and 
benches that do not crowd are not unusual in recitation rooms. This scatters 
students somewhat over the room and lessens danger of contagion through 
the breath. A third of the high schools furnish free texts. Several dis- 
tricts do so for the grades, but not for the high school. Evidently financial 
considerations are weightier than hygienic ones in settling this policy. Free 
texts are not fumigated any more regularly or satisfactorily than buildings. 

Adjustment of furniture to pupil is not proceeding very rapidly. One 
size of desk in each room is the situation in half the schools. One school 
has three sizes in each room. Chairs and benches in recitation rooms are 
hardly ever without arms. Armless opera chairs in the auditorium are 
occupied for study by parts of one overcrowded school of 300 students. 
Five schools have some adjustable furniture, three others have nothing 
else. Whenever such seatings were found, the principal was asked how 
often adjustments were made. The answers ran: "When needed", "As stu- 
dents desire", "Not this year" (the year was then half over). In one school 
from 20% to 60% of the furniture for each of six different rooms was 
adjustable, but when measured it was all found to be of the same size. Two 
principals were working out the possibilities, however, for they answered 
the question with "Whenever the student's seat is changed". 

G. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION. 

Contemporaneous and recent writing and discussion in the field of edu- 
cation have dwelt much on the social aim, and have attempted to show how 
the school might be made a training school for social responsibility. The 
machinery by which the classes are conducted and all the activities of the 
student at school have read into them the keynote "Socialization". Experi- 
ments in pupil self-government, various radical and unfortunate ventures 
followed. School people were groping then and are still groping for effective 



42 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

means to reach the desired end. Those who have been dealing with high- 
school students have discovered the social consciousness developing rapidly 
and exhibiting itself in those rudimentary forms whicb we call class spirit, 
team spirit, school spirit, cliques and fraternities. The rising social con- 
sciousness demands outlets and becomes perverted if not directed into nor- 
mal channels. It is designed in this section to give some idea of the de- 
vices that have been seized upon in this State to meet this clean-cut high- 
school problem. The treatment must be qualitative rather than quantitative. 

First, there is no notable participation of students in the government 
or discipline of the high school. Officers of the student-body in one small 
union school have taken the responsibility for conduct about the building 
during the absence of teachers at the noon hour. Principals have sought to 
give social training to their students through the various adjuncts of 
school life. 

Among these the most important is athletics; most schools, as previ- 
ously shown, have some kind of athletic team. Students are generally 
given a very large amount of discretion in the management of athletic 
enterprises. They are not usually permitted to fix the qualifications for 
participation in interscholastic contests, unless they should desire to raise 
the qualifications which principals have fixed through the State Inter- 
scholastic Association or other agreement. They are limited in the arrange- 
ment of schedules to supervision that will protect the main interests of 
the school. Otherwise they are given a relatively free hand. The financial 
or business question is up to them for solution, and their success in meet- 
ing it decides the extent of the season's contests. Strength is gained in 
most schools by the organization of one association for all the students 
who care to join. The many factions with their divergent and confiicting 
interests give a fine chance for exhibition of fair play and compromise. 
In four or five schools the boys and girls have separate associations, and 
in four schools only the boys are organized. One school permits each 
team to manage its own season. Two Denver schools, with dues of a 
dollar per year, have 50% and 85%, respectively, of their enrollment 
as members of the athletic association. Many smaller schools draw a very 
large proportion of their students into this organization. One North- 
Central-Association school manages athletics through a committee consist- 
ing of one representative from each class, a general student manager, and 
the principal; another does the same through a board of two teachers and 
four students. A third minimizes the business side by doing away with most 
interscholastic affairs and dividing the school into five "clubs" ' of boys. 
These clubs are captained by five boys, who are first selected, and then 
"choose up". From each club a team is made up to contest the other clubs 
in soccer, basketball, and tennis. Track and field meets were also held un- 
der these auspices. The results were generally close. The girls were simi- 
larly organized for tennis and basketball. 

Akin to athletic contests between classes within the school is the more 
or less annual contest between certain classes. In college towns this takes 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 43 

the form of a freshman-sophomore rivah-y, but elsewhere it is more frequent 
between upper classmen. The class spirit underlying these outbursts is 
permanent and may produce a renewal of disorder at any time. The rivalry 
becomes one of wits. Triumph of one party lasts only until the other can 
turn the tables. Nothing is ever settled. Instances annually occur of dis- 
respect or destruction of school property and private property. 

Very few schools have adopted a definite form of combat for the settle- 
ment of class superiority, but where the attempt has been made, the out- 
come has satisfied expectations. In one school a senior class of six girls 
could not compete with the junior class, which enrolled some boys. The 
girls were exceedingly anxious to make a showing of some kind, so the 
superintendent arranged a tug-of-war between six girls of each class. The 
event was largely attended, and brought out enthusiasm. It disposed of 
the sanguinary aspect of class spirit for the year. The State Preparatory 
School has taken advantage of its location to institute a "flag-day" contest 
which suits requirements, but the details are too complex to give here. 

Another device for quelling outbreaks is the shunting of class spirit 
into a very different channel. Instead of humiliating, one class may seek 
to do honor to another class. The competition is still there, but it is not a 
competition with the entertained; it is a competition with the standard set 
by previous entertainers. The commonest custom is the annual recep- 
tion of juniors to seniors. With probably a dozen schools this has become 
an institution. At one school the faculty and seniors are the guests; at 
three the reception to the seniors takes the form of a banquet. Much less 
common is the sophomore reception for freshmen in the fall, and the annual 
reception given by each class for the entire school. Some schools have 
parties given only by certain classes to the school, here by the freshmen, 
there by the juniors, and again by the sophomores. Or the classes form 
all sorts of combinations for receptions or other social affairs. These extra- 
ordinary cases are not usually traditions of the school, but represent the 
initiative of a particular group that year. The party for the whole school 
is generally a feature of the smaller school, though there are notable excep- 
tions. Classes also enjoy celebrating their own exclusive affairs. The sur- 
vey shows senior socials, senior "proms", junior "proms", sophomore 
parties, freshmen picnics. Thus the class has a function not only exclu- 
sive, but also distinctive in its nature. 

To carry on these and other less purely social activities the classes have 
their temporary or permanent organizations. Where the class is large 
enough to accomplish anything by itself, a permanent organization is the 
rule. A few principals discourage class organizations except in the two 
upper classes. 

The school play stands with the group game as a social coordinator of 
importance in the high school. The older forms of public appearance for the 
students have been supplanted in most places by the play, because the lat- 
ter is thought to secure most of the results attained by the other means, is 
always regarded as a success by the average patron, and is a money-maker 



44 VXIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

of the first order. The classes in combination or separately give plays ac- 
cording to the size of the class and the number in the cast. The small school 
gives a school play, the larger school gives class plays. The seniors lead 
all other classes, recruiting their cast in part if necessary from the other 
classes. The reason for the seniors taking the lead is that they need money 
for commencement expenses not of a purely personal character. The seniors 
need money for the senior memorial, now a tradition in many places, and 
for a commencement speaker, if the board does not assume responsibility. 
The board may put only a limited amount into commencement and this the 
class seeks to enlarge. Admission to commencement exercises is free in 
numerous towns, and this puts an additional burden on the class.* 

When the plays are given by the whole school or by others than the 
seniors, there is no limit to the variety of purposes for which the proceeds 
go. Athletics benefits most, but by no means exclusively. School interests are 
promoted to the extent of several thousand dollars per year by the efforts of 
the boys and girls. Each class strives to make an annual payment on the 
piano debt in one town. In another town interest centers in art decorations, 
the library, lantern slides, the school orchestra, magazines for genei'al read- 
ing. German students gave a play to buy pictures for the German room. A 
high-school play netted $20 and a senior play $55, all of which the students 
pledged on a stereopticon, should the board furnish the balance. A school 
enrolling only sixty realized $90 from two entertainments and a circus, and 
$115 from the senior play. It is not uncommon to find funds raised averag- 
ing several dollars for each pupil. 

If one plan does not work well, it is repeated or replaced by another. 
The tenacity of the students sometimes is admirable. A small county school 
gave a play in three different towns in order to clear $40. Two plays, a box 
supper, and an ice-cream social brought $84 in a little school. An ambitious 
and determined young college woman went into a country village to teach a 
union school of a dozen students. There was not a book in the library, but 
at the close of the year there were seventy volumes. A great deal of this was 
made possible by three dances at the school building. Refreshments were 
served in connection. Forty-five dollars for a box supper, $38 for a pie 
social, $50 for a supper served by the Domestic Science classes show the pos- 
sibilities of cooperation in small schools. Girls sold candy down town for the 
benefit of athletics. Three schools managed the town lyceum course for 
profits. The boys of a county school gave a minstrel show. Perhaps the 
largest schemes are the fair and the circus. These are undertaken only by 
a very few large schools. One clears $400 or $500 each year. 

An interesting and suggestive variation in a little town was the agree- 
ment with the proprietor of the moving-picture show that the school should 



* The commencement exercises are not the only ones which are made free 
?he s^choo'r 'X' T,r'J?""V;i'^-'^^^P°^'tion to make free everything connected wiU^ 
me .scnooi. ine plays are free m a coup e of towns in one case not tr. thp nnbiiV 
but to the school and to the parents of those participating ^ ' 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 45 

receive all above operating expenses for a certain night each week. The 
"school" night was the one that had carried no profit to the keeper of the 
place, but with the school behind it, it became one of the best nights of the 
week. It would seem that under such conditions the character of the films 
might also be determined in part by the school, and the educative potentiali- 
ties of the kinetoscope be exploited a bit. 

The senior memorial as a pledge of loyalty to one's school is growing. 
Few schools of consequence are without it. Paintings, friezes, statuary, a 
grafanola, a flag pole, a fountain, are gifts that have been left. Some classes 
are so little anxious to claim attention that they have made contributions to 
the library. 

The school publication deserves notice, not because it is expected to 
prove a source of profit, but because it does demand sound business manage- 
ment to prevent a deficit and calls for a corresponding amount of wisdom in 
organization and selection of officers. About a dozen high-school papers are 
issued monthly in the state. One appears semi-monthly. A dozen schools 
issue some kind of annual, under the control of the whole school in half the 
cases, under the management of seniors and juniors in the other half. 
Schools which find it impossible or unwise to finance this undertaking insert 
notes in local papers. These are in toto neither creditable nor the opposite, 
but they are a type of school activity which has been found advantageous. 
The plan of notes by each class has been tried, but usually some correspond- 
ent or correspondents represent the school as a whole. 

Besides the organizations mentioned there are many representative of 
special interests, and not directly commercial. Among these are glee clubs, 
orchestras, camera clubs, literary societies, debating clubs, Shakespeare clubs, 
German clubs, a travel club, a band, a Spanish club, and an agricultural club. 
These are ofTicered and run by students, though teachers are usually mem- 
bers, and often active, sub rosa. Most of the general literary societies held 
at school and in sciiool hours are involuntary, or if not strictly so, do not 
represent student spirit and activity. Debating clubs are usually for the 
sexes separately, but arouse much more interest among the boys. 

Students are taking some interest in sociological and religious problems. 
There is a Y. M. C. A. ; a Y. W. C. A. ; a girls' club, whose members read, sew, 
and study social problems; a "Round Table", composed of girls who study 
religious and social questions and send representatives to the Estes Park 
Summer Conference of religious workers. Students of a large city school 
collected a Christmas offering for the poor. 

Several schools oppose the policy of breaking up into so many units 
operating independently. Hence they have organized a Student Body, to 
which all belong and out of which all the differentiated activities, except 
those of a purely class character, grow. 

The detail of this review is not intended to serve as a suggestion that 
any school can safely attempt all the activities mentioned. The particular 
directions to be taken in a school will depend much on predilection and ca- 



46 UXIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

pacity for leadership in the faculty. Special undertakings always interfere 
with regular work. The solution is to be found in a balancing of the loss and 
gain account. One school was seriously disturbed for several days by an im- 
portant venture that enlisted many of the students, but the principal re- 
marked that the question in his mind was "whether students who were de- 
veloping the initiative and administrative ability shown, for example, by a 
girl who managed a parade of over forty automobiles filled with cheering 
students, could be a failure anytchere, even though grades in certain sub- 
jects suffered for the time." 

H. THE GRADUATES. 

The total number of graduates in 1913 was 1900. Returns from all ex- 
cept Denver and two other North-Central-Association schools gave data on the 
immediate decision of 1202 regarding higher education. An institution of 
higher learning was construed to be one which demands for admission the 
equivalent of graduation from high school. No facts could be gathered as 
to what percentage goes to college a year or more after completing high 
school. 

TABLE 25. 
Summary of Class of 1913. 



Schools. 



)13-14. 
Per Cent 
of Total. 


Teaching. 
Number. ^J^^^^ 


29.4 


77 9.2 


48.5 


43 18.2 


32.4 


15 11. 


33.4 


98 11.4 


26.4 


9 7.8 


30.8 


28 12.3 


33.3 


135 11.2 



In Higher Institutions in 1913-14 
T^'tal. Colorado, whert. Total. 

North Central 835 189 56 245 

Other Accredited... 231 95 17 112 

Non- Accredited 136 38 6 44 

District 859 242 45 287 

Union 116 27 17 44 

County 227 53 17 70 

Totals 1,202 322 79 401 

One important showing of Table 25 is the superiority of the smaller ac- 
credited school in getting its students to continue their education. How far 
this is due to the closer personal touch of student and teacher is unknown, 
but a large part of the secret must lie there. The non-accredited school 
drops down because of the shift of ambitious students to accredited schools 
to finish their courses, and because the student from the non-accredited 
school does not feel that he is so well vouched for as his brother from an 
accredited school. Unless he has unusual courage and confidence he will not 
strike for college. 

A second matter for attention is the larger percentage of young teachers 
turned out by the smaller accredited school. If any class of schools has a re- 
sponsibility for some small efforts in the way of teacher training, this is the 
class, not because boys and girls ought to enter teaching without higher 
training in academic and normal branches, but because they do go to teach- 
ing without it. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 47 

Union schools are considerably below the others in percentage of gradu- 
ates going to college and entering teaching. Conclusions relative to a class of 
schools, however, are not applicable to particular schools of that class. One 
union high school sent to college seventeen out of twenty-two graduates in 
1913. Statistics school by school are not presented here, because in all except a 
very few of the largest schools the variation from year to year is large. A 
collection of such figures for five years from any school would be suggestive 
of the impulse it gives its graduates in certain directions and would register 
pretty definitely the pulse of the community in those directions. 

It is improbable that any school can regard the percentage of students 
sent to college by other schools as an absolute criterion of what it should do. 
Low standards in this respect, however, can be checked by comparison with 
other schools similarly situated, and progress or retrogression can be estab- 
lished by comparison with former records of the same school. 



48 UXIVEh'i^ITY OF COLORADO. 



IV. THE TEACHING STAFF. 

The agent most potent in its action on the student body is the teacher. 
Course of study, texts, elegant buildings, faultless equipment, any of these 
would be gladly sacrificed if necessary to secure a teacher. The character 
of the teaching force is of prime concern then to the patron, the pupil, the 
superintendent, the principal, and even to the teacher, present or prospective. 
No one is prepared to contend that all that inheres in a teacher, even all the 
most important qualities, can be made a matter of exposition, but it is fitting 
to study into those elements that can be given tangible expression. 

A. PREPARATION. 

To begin with those characteristics which it is hoped a teacher will bring 
to his work, and upon which a premium is always theoretically, sometimes 
actually, placed, the first one is schooling. "What fund of information has 
this teacher, which will bear on the problems of his profession? Because 
examinations are less in vogue than formerly, examination grades can not 
be produced in evidence. One must fall back on time served or degrees 
secured. That neither is wholly satisfactory all must agree. A degree se- 
cured on three years' work can not in general be regarded as equal to one 
secured on four, yet such dilferences often occur. Colorado receives teach- 
ers from all parts of the country and from all kinds of schools. Mere time 
served may likewise be unsafe. A poor student may take five years to com- 
plete an A. B. that his fellow carries away in four. Or he may do corre- 
spondence work, private reading, something which does not readily reduce 
to hours or credits. Many teachers finish their secondary schooling at col- 
lege. 

Years in higher institutions have in this report been reduced to allow 
reasonable time for the completion of high-school work. Three years In a 
college preparatory department hive been taken as equal to four years in 
a high school. The figures in Table 26 stand for years of preparation above 
a four-year high school or its equivalent. Few records are considered unless 
carefully filled out to account for all time spent in educational work. This 
is a necessary precaution because of the large discrepancies in the records 
of people as they turn them in year after year. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 49 

TABLE 26. 
Preparation of Teachers Above a Four-Year High School or Its 

Equivalent. 

NUMBER OF TEACHERS. 

P':°f«f - 20 Hrs. 

^ ^ , Less Five Degree Held. „ 'onal j^ ga^h 

Schools. than Years . , frepara- qubi'ct* 

Four or None. Minor. „^^^^ «cn of ' 

Yrs. Over. vanced. lo hours .""^t 

or more. '•«»"B"'- 

Accredited (except Denver). 140 78 77 31 49 276 233 

Non-Accredited 46 59 26 16 7 73 26 

District (except Denver) 129 69 61 37 56 246 186 

Union 21 10 13 2 7 42 24 

County 35 10 15 11 3 71 49 

Schools. Per Cent of Teachers. 

Accredited (except Denver) . . 30 17 17 7 10 70 60 

Non-Accredited 40 10 22 14 6 72 25 

District (except Denver) 30 16 14 9 13 70 54 

Union 34 16 21 3 11 70 40 

County 38 11 16 12 3 82 56 

The number of teachers is given in the upper half of the table to indi- 
cate the extent of the reports on which the table is based. The per cents 
are the significant figures. The larger part of the teachers form a type class, 
which is not noted in the table. They have had four years of college or 
university work, and hold a regular baccalaureate degree, such as A.B., B.S., 
or Ph.B. Averages of the whole body then would not so well show the dif- 
ferences between schools. 

Table 26 shows only the amount of variation from this type, which is the 
published standard for accrediting. The non-accredited institutions fall but 
about 50% further from the mark than the accredited ones. District, union, 
and county schools show no great differences, though the county schools fall 
behind some distance. 

The last columns bear on special rather than general preparation. 
Three reasons explain the advantage of 72 to 70 in favor of non-accredited 
schools in professional preparation: (1) many teachers who have no degree 
have attended normal institutions for a limited time and there received 
pedagogical training; (2) nearly all who have minor degrees have received 
them in normal institutions, because colleges and universities do not often 
grant such; (3) many excellent schools with a stable teaching force have 
teachers of long experience, who left colleges before pedagogical courses 
were emphasized or generally offered. 

The last column calls attention to a primary defect in the placing of 
teachers. Colleges are nearly all organized on a system of "majors", 
whereby a student stresses his preparation for a special field. Armed 



* "Subject" means "department", as construed on page 57. 



50 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

with his diploma, he then goes out and is assigned to a department abso- 
Uitely regardless of his college major. That only 60% of teachers, 
in accredited schools should have had two years of college work in the 
departments in which they work is unnecessary and unfortunate. The fig- 
ure drops to 25% in non-accredited schools more because the teachers 
must work in many different departments than for any other reason. 

Taking the faculty of each school as a unit, the average preparation 
of teachers in years is presented in Table 27. 

TABLE 27. 

Average Pkepar.\tion of Faculties ix Years. 

Schools. Under 1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 Median Mode 

North Central 1 15 15 3.97 ? 

Other Accredited 6 17 10 3.64 3-4 

Non-Accredited 4-Year. 2 2 7 16 19 3.75 4-5 

District 1 2 9 31 31 3.80 .3-4 

Union 1 . . 3 7 8 3.65 4-5 

County . . 2 10 5 3.75 3-4 

The homogeneity of groups decreases as one goes from Nofth-Central- 
Association schools down to the middle of the table. Below the middle of 
the table county schools are most nearly homogeneous, perhaps because 
most of them are accredited. 

The small difference in amount of preparation between different classes 
of schools would probably not have been predicted. The averages 
for accredited schools are materially lowered by the teachers of voca- 
tional subjects. A number of these have had no preparation in higher 
institutions. This is most often true of commercial teachers who have fre- 
quently taken short terms in business colleges without attending high 
schools more than a couple of years. Teachers of manual and household 
arts also have made a practice of taking a short course in special schools. 
On the other hand, aside from imitation relative to course of study, non- 
accredited schools have caught no standard of accredited schools more 
definitely than the general requirement of college graduation for qualified 
teachers. This also has helped maintain their average. 

The continuing preparation of the teacher is but another phase of the 
general preparation. Some of the agencies for continuing preparation are 
poorly organized and ineffective. Local general meetings may mean much 
or nothing. Reading circles are generally more definite, but need exact 
checking to determine results. Correspondence or extension-class courses 
are a more reliable index, but the summer session stands at the head of 
the list as most satisfactory. 

With these limitations in mind, the following table is given for what 
it may be worth. It is based upon approximately sixty-five accredited and 
forty-five non-accredited schools: 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 51 

TABLE 28. 
Provisions for Professional Gro^vth of Teachers. 

Schools. 
Agency. Accredited. Non-Accredited. 

Local meetings 34 8 

Reading circles 29 19 

Correspondence or extension work .... 30 8 

Summer sessions 42 14 

Since a large school was tallied under "Correspondence Course" or 
"Summer Session", if any one of its force was utilizing such means for 
professional advancement, it follows that large schools may have made a 
showing quite out of proportion to the actual number of teachers affected. 
But on one point the number of teachers was noted, viz., attendance upon 
summer sessions of higher institutions. Some 430 teachers in accredited 
schools and about 120 in non-accredited schools answered this question 
for the summer of 1913. Of the first group 64 and of the second, 29 were in 
some higher institution. The percentages for the two cases were 15% and 
25%, respectively. Some of the largest schools, with highest salaries, and 
salary schedules based on tenure, had almost no teachers in summer sessions, 
but a small percentage did spend their summer in valuable travel. To draw 
general conclusions from data for a single year would be unsafe, but the 
hypothesis is suggested that provision for stability in teaching force must 
be carefully framed to discourage mental "dry-rot". 

Another problem connected with preparation, and one on which light 
will be welcomed by those proposing to enter teaching, is the relation be- 
tween preparation and reward. It has been shown that a fair percentage 
of teachers continue their preparation while in service in various ways, 
and that the teacher with a standard degree and approximately four years 
of residence work as a college student is the type that is dominant. The 
smaller number of others, according to Table 26, suggests difficulty or dis- 
crimination which they must meet in becoming high-school teachers. It 
is possible to get some idea of the financial discrimination against these 
people of inferior preparation. This is done by taking the sexes separately 
and by eliminating the effect of experience through a comparison only of 
those who have equal amounts of it. Since a large part of our teachers 
work for but a short term of years, and because the present status is more 
important than that of several years ago, no teachers are considered in 
Table 29 if they were teaching more than their third year at the time of 
the survey. 



52 UXIVER8ITY OF COLORADO. 

TABLE 29. 
Relation pF Academic Prbiparaiion to Salary. 

Year of Teaching Experience. 
Median Salaries of Teachers Holding— First. Second. Third. 

Men. Women. Men. Women. Men. Women. 

A Minor Degree or no Degree.. $783 $650 $950 $683 $1,100 $750 

A Standard Degree 892 700 925 781 1,037 807 

An Advanced Degree 950 750 1,350 825 

Average Salaries of Teachers Holding — 

A Minor Degree or no Degree.. 821 650 950 694 1,083 730 

A Standard Degree 938 693 925 757 1,061 826 

An Advanced Degree 950 750 1,350 830 

Some of tlie groups are very small, those for advanced degrees ranging 
from one to five. The effect of schooling is plain in the case of the women. 
There is not an exception in the table to the general rule, "Better prepara- 
tion, better pay''. For the men the same conclusion is accentuated the 
first year, which is probably the reason for its reversal the second. Such a 
reversal would not have occurred if the normal gain by virtue of experi- 
ence had been registered the second year. The man with subnormal 
academic preparation, who is able to force his way into the high school and 
hold his place for a year, appears to adjust himself pretty readily and to 
make up his original handicap. But there is one other fact to be taken 
into account, which may explain everything that needs explanation. A strict 
check shows that the majority of the men with no degrees or minor ones, 
and all the more highly paid ones teaching their first, second, or third year, 
were teachers of Manual Training, commercial branches, Agriculture, or 
Physical Education. The man without a standard degree who teaches other 
subjects is at a disadvantage that amounts almost to disqualification. 

B. EXPERIENCE. 

The second asset which patrons desire a teacher to bring to his work is 
experience. If this be of the right sort, the teacher is in demand. Table 
30 shows that the schools which will hereafter be found to pay the most 
liberal salaries are drawing to themselves the teachers of ripe experience 
so far as women are concerned. The other sex does not show any great 
difference in distribution between kinds of schools outside of Denver, ex- 
cept that county schools are hiring a younger set of men. Women work 
into the more desirable schools or quit teaching in a relatively short time. 
Men are more easily contented. This is explained partly by the fact that 
men hold most of the principalships, and thus receive the best salaries in 
the smaller schools. The remainder of the explanation may be found in 
the discussion below of experience in relation to salary. 

Table 30 takes each teacher as a unit and indicates the amount of expe- 
rience for certain classes of schools. Table 31 takes the average experience 
of each school as the unit, thus making as many units as there are schools. 
In this way one can readily see to what extent schools of the same class 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



53 



differ in experience of faculty. Such a difference as exists between Denver 
and other North-Central-Association schools obviously will not exist be- 
tween Denver and each individual North-Central-Association school. More- 
over, if a school's efficiency is to be judged by the experience of its faculty, 
it is necessary to have data on schools as units, in order to have some 
criteria on which to base an estimate. 

TABLE 30. 
Total Years Experience As a Teacher Including This Year. 

MEN. 
Schools. 1 2 

Denver 1 

Other North Central 16 9 

Other Accredited 6 7 

Non-Accredited 6 4 

District (ex. Denver). .1l9 14 12 12 10 

Union 5 3 

County 4 3 



3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


3 


1 


1 


2 


3 


2 


3 




5 


4 1 


2 




4 




9 


9 


9 


4 


8 


4 


9 


6 


4 


9 10 


6 


5 


1 


2 


7 


7 


4 


4 


2 


1 


2 


4 


6 


4 2 


1 


4 


2 


1 


4 


1 


3 


5 


1 


6 


1 


4 


2 


1 3 


1 


4 


1 


1 


2 


12 


10 


9 


9 


8 


11 


10 


8 


7 13 


6 


12 


4 


2 


1 


1 


2 


2 


1 


3 




2 


2 


4 1 








-> 


7 


4 


4 


2 


1 




1 


2 


2 


3 1 


2 


1 







Schools. 



25 or 
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 over Median Mode Aver. 



2 


2 


1 


1 


1 


12 


16.1 


? 


16.5 


6 


1 




1 


2 


6 


9. 


1 


9.9 


2 




1 


1 


1 


2 


7. 


9 


9. 


1 


2 




2 




2 


8.7 


1 


10.1 


8 


3 


1 


3 


o 


8 


8.9 


1 


10.1 


1 










1 


7.8 


1 


8.5 








1 




1 


5. 


3 


7.4 



Denver 5 5 

Other North Central 5 4 

Other Accredited 1 

Non-Accredited 3 1 

District (ex. Denver)... 8 4 8 3 

Union 1 

County 1 

WOMEN. 

Schools. 12 3 4 5 6 7 

Denver 3.. 3 2 2 4 5 5 3 6 3 

Other North Central... 9 16 12 14 13 13 16 14 11 10 10 

Other Accredited 11 15 12 13 12 4 7 6 5 4 3 

Non-Accredited 14 11 10 9 4 4 1 2 1 1 1 

District (ex. Denver).. 22 30 27 25 20 16 20 18 10 12 10 

Union 7 4 3 4 1 3.. 3 3.. 1 

County 5 8 4 7 8 2 4 1 4 3 3 



9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 



4 


5 


3 


3 


3 


5 


6 


3 


7 


3 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 








1 


1 




1 


1 


6 


4 


8 
1 


4 


1 
1 


2 


1 


1 











Schools. 



25 or 
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 over Median Mode Aver. 



Denver 5 4 

Other North Central 8 4 

Other Accredited 1 . . 

Non-Accredited 

District (ex. Denver) ... 6 4 

Union 1 . . 

County 2 . . 



6 


1 


4 


.. 4 


12 


14.3 


9 


15.1 


4 


1 


2 


1 .. 


3 


7.4 


9 


8.6 


2 










4.4 


2 


4.9 


1 










3.25 


1 


4.4 


5 


1 


1 


1 . . 


3 


5.75 


2 


7.1 


1 










4.1 


1 


5.8 


1 




1 






4.9 


9 


5. 



54 UXIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

TABLE 31. 

Average Experiexce of Faculties ix Years, by Schools. 

12 or 

Under 2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12 over 

North Central 1 5 6 12 6 2 

Other Accredited 4 8 13 4 3 2 

Non- Accredited 4-Year 2 4 14 8 7 4 8 

District (except Denver).. .. 5 16 21 15 8 10 

Union 2 3 3 2 5 3 2 

County 1 8 4 3 2 

Hardly any of our high schools are entirely in the hands of what can be 
termed a "green" force, but it is not difficult to find schools with a faculty 
possessing five to six times the experience of that of other schools. The fair 
amount of previous experience in all schools helps to offset the dangers of 
brief tenure pointed out further on. 

From the standpoint of vocational guidance all persons, and above all, 
those who are teaching or intending to teach, are interested in the possibili- 
ties of promotion. The stress placed upon experience gives assurance that 
it counts for something, but for how much? In actual dollars what can a 
teacher expect to receive for the accumulating years of his experience? This 
question can never be answered for teaching or any other vocation so nearly 
absolutely as it can for some phenomenon in which all must participate. In 
measuring physical growth, for example, one can take measurements until he 
is satisfied of the fairness of his sampling, barring the fact that there is an 
elimination by death, which might affect averages. But in teaching there is 
a constant selection in two directions: (1) competent teachers are leaving 
because of greater opportunities elsewhere, (2) incompetent ones are being 
forced out. So it can not be said that the results secured from the records of 
the present high-school teaching force in the state and placed below in Table 
32, are indicative of what any person of either sex will probably receive 
when he has been teaching a given number of years. It is rather what he 
will probably receive in a given number of years, if he is of the sort not 
eliminated before that time and if he continues his preparation to the ex- 
tent that the average teacher does. The two variables, experience and con- 
tinuing preparation, operate constantly. 

TABLE 32. 
Years of Experience ix Relation to Salary. 

Median. 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 

Men $875 $ 950 $1,030 $1,075 $1,075 $1,025 $1,383 $1,175 

Women 684 767 812 806 839 930 975 1,003 

Average. 

Men 880 945 1,050 1,083 1,124 1,021 1,375 1,250 

Women ' 678 773 898 845 860 960 1,012 1,036 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 55 

Median. 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 

Men 1,317 1,112 1,420 1,458 1,350 1,187 1,350 1,083 

Women 840 1,183 1,250 1,204 1,187 1,075 1,250 1,400 

Average. 

Men 1,292 1,179 1,328 1,531 1,395 1,220 1,577 1,228 

Women 875 1,134 1,162 1,225 1,180 1,105 1,262 1,333 

Median. 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22nd 23rd 24th 25th&over 

Men 1,550 1,450 1,680 1,525 1,450 1,550 1,550 1,350 1,875 

Women .. 1,483 1,175 1,317 1,225 1,250 1,487 1,250 1,437 1,519 

Average. 

Men 1,750 1,679 1,750 1,568 1,690 1,450 1,510 1,550 2,017 

Women .. 1,367 1,204 1,250 1,232 1,250 1,383 1,250 1,400 1,507 

If these facts be plotted as straightened curves, each five-year period 
being taken as a unit, the following conclusions maj' be drawn: 

(1) Experience, plus continuing preparation, will double the salary 
of a man in about twenty-five years, of a woman in a little over twenty years. 

(2) In general, each five-year period counts for less than the preceding 
one. 

(3) The limit of efficiency (as measured by salary) is not reached in- 
side of twenty-five years for either sex, a fact which tends to justify agitation 
for pension laws, retirement funds, and any other arrangements tending to 
produce a stable teaching body. 

(4) Women increase in salary absolutely as much as, and relatively 
more than men. Since the large salaries in a number of supervisory posi- 
tions, for which women are not considered, help the figures for men, it is 
plain that there must be at the other extreme a number of men whose expe- 
rience has not resulted in a typical salary increase. This group, the "dead- 
wood" of the profession, is the one which keeps up the figures for expe- 
rience of men in the lower classes of schools. 

C. INSTRUCTIONAL WORK. 

The third demand upon the teacher is not for potential efficiency, as 
preparation and experience, but is for "kinetic" eflaciency. A certain num- 
ber of classes are assigned him to teach. There may be other duties, usually 
there are. But supervising the study hall, coaching athletics, directing a 
band, glee club, or dramatic organization, watching the playground, doing 
police duty in the corridor, chaperoning a class party, can not be reduced to 
definite terms; they do not vary so much from school to school; and some of 
them rank more or less as recreations according to the interests of the indi- 
vidual. 

Three of the variables which constantly interact to determine the de- 
mand on a teacher have been considered here: (1) the number of students 
per teacher, (2) the number of recitations per day, and (3) the number of 
departments over which the teacher must distribute his energies. 



56 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

For studying the number of pupils the average attendance has been di- 
vided by the number of teachers. It shows the general level of work 
throughout the year so far as number of pupils affects it. It should be ob- 
served, however, that enrollment per teacher is very important. When at- 
tendance is very irregular, or students keep straggling into school until past 
the middle of the year, the extra help which teachers must render stragglers 
is a heavy tax. Aside from the special help involved, the number of stu- 
dents per teacher is not of much consequence to the teacher except for the 
routine of grading and the correction of written work. But written work 
means much in English and laboratory sciences. 

TABLE 33. 
StI'Oexts IX Average Attexdaxce Per Teacher. 

25 or 

Schools. Under 5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 over Median Mode 

North Central 1 9 18 2 21.4 20-25 

Other Accredited 3 13 13 3 1 15.2 ? 

Non-Accredited 4-Year... 2 13 19 6 4 .. 11.8 10-15 

Short-Course 1 5 5 5.5 ? 

District 15 21 20 17 2 15.4 10-15 

Union 3 4 9 3 4 1 12.8 10-15 

County 2 8 5 4 .. 14.7 10-15 

The wide difference between schools according to their rank does not 
mean so much to the teacher as to the student. Where numbers are so large, 
there is less of contact between teacher and pupil, less freedom exercised by 
students in consulting with teachers, and more opportunity for the lagging 
student to elude the teacher. In this one respect the large school is appar- 
ently destined to be always at a disadvantage. 

Systems of accrediting have had the effect of grouping accredited schools 
closely in number of recitations per teacher. Accredited schools have been 
very considerate of their teachers in keeping within the limit, less perhaps 
because of the standard for accrediting than because teachers are very sensi- 
tive over the assignment to them of extra classes. Teachers handling classes, 
such as drawing and manual training, that work in double periods only, 
may have but three classes per day and thus reduce the average for the 
school. Over half the accredited schools have an average of less than five, 
but less than half have as yet gone below six as the maximum. The only 
serious condition is found in about a dozen non-accredited schools, where the 
maximum runs above seven. Four or five of these have two teachers; the 
others have but one teacher, who carries the whole load himself or receives 
a little assistance from some grade teacher. Four district and five union 
schools have teachers with ten or more classes per day. 

The last point, number of departments in which the teacher works, 
might almost be treated under "Supervision" instead of under "Teaching 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 57 

Staff", so fully does it depend on foresight of superintendent or principal. 
One of the most distressing qualitative findings of this survey was the com- 
placency of some principals of small schools, who seem never to have heard 
or dreamed of departmental instruction. It is true that some principals be- 
lieve it better for a teacher to work in more than one department. Some 
others believe that every teacher should have a class in English, and a few 
hold that anybody can teach History. These propositions are not cited at 
this time for ridicule, refutation, or endorsement. They are merely a part 
of the facts. 

TABLE 34. 
Average Number of Departments Workeo in by Each Teacher. 

Schools. Under 1.5 1.5-2. 2.-2.5 2.5-3. 

North Central 12 14 5 1 

Other Accredited 1 9 12 9 

Non-Accredited 4-Year .. 1 9 7 

Short-Course 

District 11 19 14 11 

Union .. 3 5 2 

County 2 2 7 4 

3.-3.5 3.5 or over Median Mode 

North Central . . 1.64 1.5-2. 

Other Accredited 2 1 2.79 2.-2.5 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 13 21 3.35 over 3.5 

Short-Course 3 14 4.1 over 3.5 

District 15 23 2.64 ? 

Union 1 11 3.4 over 3.5 

County 2 2 2.39 2.-2.5 

In interpreting the above table the following departments should be under- 
stood: English, Greek, Latin, German, French, Spanish, History, Mathematics, 
Science, Commercial, Household Arts, Physical Culture, Manual Arts, and 
Teacher Training. Music so much of the time is "led" rather than "taught" 
that it was not considered. Public Speaking and Debating were counted as 
English; Commercial Correspondence and Business English as either Eng- 
lish or Commercial; Commercial Arithmetic as either Mathematics or Com- 
mercial; Commercial Geography as either Science or Commercial; Civics, 
Economics and Industrial History as History. 

The bi-modal distribution of district and union schools arises from the 
long distance between the modes for accredited and non-accredited schools. 
Too few county schools are non-accredited to produce the same result. It 
is principally in the much greater number of departments to familiarize 
himself with and the numerous recitations to be conducted that the less pre- 
pared and less experienced teacher of the small school finds the odds against 
him. 



58 UXIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

D. TENURE. 

Annually teachers' agencies and appointment bureaus register thousands 
of teachers, either because the teachers do not desire to return to their 
present positions or because they are not satisfactory to their employers. 
Xot seldom is the dissatisfaction mutual. Table 35 shows tenure by years 
for men and women, and Table 36 summarizes those results. 

TABLE 36. 
Years in Present Position. 

Median Mode Average Teachers 

Schools. M. ■ W. M. W. M. W. M. W. 

Denver 8.3 6.7 3 2 9.1 8.5 62 99 

Other North Central 2.4 2.5 114. 3.6 146 179 

Other Accredited 1.6 1.6 1 1 2.3 2.4 72 79 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 1.5 1.2 1 1 2.1 1.5 60 71 

Short-Course 1.4 1.25 1 1 1.5 1.2 13 10 

District (except Denver) 1.9 1.9 1 1 3.5 2.9 219 258 

Union 1.3 1.6 1 1 1.8 1.9 34 36 

County 1.5 -1.6 1 1 2.1 2.2 40 55 

The men have a slightly longer tenure in general, but the most con- 
spicuous difference is in the non-accredited high school, where the men are 
mostly principals. The salaries there are too low to hold a qualified teacher 
in the rank and file more than a year. If the principals and superintendents 
should be omitted,* the women would have better tenure on the whole than 
the men. The correlation of tenure for both sexes with the recognized 
standing of the schools is perfect. While thfs almost annual revolution con- 
tinues in the faculty of the small school, in marked distinction to conditions 
abroad, the small school must continue to suffer. 

But, as shown in the section entitled "Experience", conclusions relative 
to the teaching body as a whole by classes of schools do not hold with refer- 
ence to the various schools of any one class. It is possible that some schools 
are very much lacking in stability of faculty, whereas others of the same 
class stand very high. 

*For tenure of .supt-rintendents and piincipals, see page 84. 

TABLE 37. 

AvEUAGK Tenure in Ye.\rs by Schools, Exclusive of Sifperintendent and 

Principal. 

Schools. 1.-1.5 1.5-2. 2.-2.5 2.5-3. 

North Central (except Denver) 4 5 3 5 

Other Accredited " 10 9 6 5 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 27 3 10 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL E-DUCATION. 59 

TABLE 37.— Concluded. 

4 or 

Schools. 3.-3.5 3.5-4. over Schools 

North Central (except Denver) 6 1 7 31 

Other Accredited 3 . . 1 34 

Non-Accredited 4-Year 1 . . 1 42 

There are extremes then in all classes of schools. The single non-accred- 
ited school of high tenure is a union school taught by a man and his wife. 
The "other accredited" school of highest tenure is a county school which has 
had its principal for six years and his two assistants for three and seven, re- 
spectively. The principal receives a liberal sa.lary for a school of that size, 
and the average salary of the assistants is higher than for any school in 
the state outside Denver and Colorado Springs. All three instructors re- 
main another year. Taking the four North-Central-Association schools of 
lowest tenure, the superintendents of two of them were serving their first 
year, and the superintendent of a third was in his second year. Such whole- 
sale changes are almost sure signs of disaster, past or impending. 

The shifting of our teaching population may be more or less rapid than 
in other states. Other surveys will be necessary to determine this, but it 
may not be amiss to point out one rea,son for tenure being as low as it is. 
That reason is the cosmopolitan character of our teaching force. This survey 
showed in our high schools teachers who hold degrees from 149 different col- 
leges in 30 states of this country and two foreign countries. They have been 
schooled in the elementary schools of 30 states of the Union and five foreign 
countries. 



UXIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 






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SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 61 

An endeavor was made to analyze somewhat the reasons for changes of 
location. The principal or superintendent was asked to give the reason for 
each loss from the faculty of the high school now under his direction at 
the close of school in 1913. Regarding one's own predecessor the situa- 
tion thus created was delicate, but no better means seemed to be offered. 
As agaiost eighty-three teachers serving their first year in non-accredited 
four-year schools, something was learned of the reason for the removal 
of fifty of their predecessors. And for the removal of about a hundred 
teachers in accredited schools, 117 reasons were given. The mutual dis- 
satisfaction of teacher and employers mentioned above is responsible for 
the excess. 

"Unsatisfactory service" was the cause alleged in half the cases for 
the non-accredited schools, but it is only half as important relatively in 
accredited schools. This suggests that the small school either does not 
select its teachers intelligently or does not pay enough to secure compe- 
tent ones. This explanation is substantiated by the fact that "Better salary" 
is cited as a reason for change nine times in non-accredited schools and 
thirty-three times in accredited schools. It is the smaller accredited school 
then from which teachers are being picked by large schools as soon as 
they are broken in. The reason third in frequency was "Returned to 
school". It explains about ten per cent of the changes. The fourth rea- 
son is "Married", which would really rank third, if it operated similarly 
on both sexes. Less frequent reasons were "Change of occupation", "Desire 
to be near relatives", "Poor health", "Sickness in family". 

Some investigation also was made of the conditions under which 
teachers are employed, to see whether that might furnish a clue to the 
many cases of "Unsatisfactory service". It was found to be the custom to 
see teachers before employing them, especially in the better organized 
schools. The question then was put, "Do you visit them (the prospective 
teachers) at their work, or ask them to visit you"? To this the answer was 
"The latter" in over three-fourths of the cases. The response was "Both", 
or "The former, if possible", in equal numbers of the remaining cases. 
School people in conference very generally recognized the inefficiency of 
the present method of choosing teachers "on sight" or unseen. The false 
impressions made by good looks, charming manners, faultless clothes, and 
fine recommendations can never give the assurance that comes from seeing 
a teacher stand before a class and teach it well. A limited amount of 
money to defray the traveling expenses of principals who know where to 
look for teachers, is wisely expended. 

One common condition of employment is experience. Non-accredited 
schools do not pay sufficient salaries to permit them to insist upon this 
very often, but the larger number of the accredited schools can and do 
demand it. This reduces the likelihood of failure in accredited schools. 
Again, when experience is demanded, the difference in salaries still is oper- 
ative, because the accredited school can pay for successful experience, 
while the non-accredited school usually can not. A teacher who has taught 



62 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

but one year each in eight schools goes into a ninth school, non-accredited, 
of course, to teach his ninth year at the same salary he last received. 

Teachers' agencies have by some been blamed for many of the malad- 
justments and failures in the teaching corps. To a question as to the use 
made of agencies, the answers were "None" twenty-four times, "A last 
resort" seven times, "Seldom" eighteen times. Thirty-four schools used 
agencies to secure candidates and recommendations, but very few would 
admit that they hired teachers on the representations of an agency. The 
inaccessibility of many parts of the State establishes a serious need for 
agencies, commercial or not, that will act in a really professional capacity 
in furnishing teachers. In no state are routes more circuitous, travel more 
slow and expensive. Candidates will not hazard a journey to some places 
to secure a position that is not worth the cost of the extra trip. An agency 
fee is cheaper. On the other hand, the board will not allow a principal 
his time or expenses to seek a teacher, or, worse still, sits in judgment 
itself on a question that belongs to the principal. 

Another item that affects tenure is the "Wanderlust". Tramps are 
everywhere, but newer portions of the country with attractions which are 
unusual or seem unusual at a distance, have more than their share. Colo- 
rado is the gateway through which "tramp" teachers find it handy and 
desirable to pass on their way either east or west. Many confess a desire 
for change. One young woman, who was succeeding well in her present 
position, claimed her early education in Michigan and had already taught 
in New Hampshire, Minnesota, North Dakota, and Washington. The isola- 
tion of the mountain country, the extremely high cost of living, and the 
altitude, if over seven thousand feet, all have their influence to cut short 
the teacher's stay, more especially if he came partly to see the country. 

While the fate of the teacher who has really failed is of some import- 
ance, all are interested in the destination of the teacher who changes for a 
better salary. Nearly all those who changed for that reason in the spring 
of 1913 were traced geographically, but not educationally. Presumably, 
they continue in high-school work. Colorado retained twenty-seven out of 
forty-one. Of the other fourteen, only five went farther east. States to 
the west are throwing out strong inducements to teachers. 

E. SALARY. 

The salaries paid teachers in the long run give the estimate placed by 
the community on its teachers and the estimate placed by the teachers 
on themselves. The general truth of the principle is not controverted by 
its failure to reach certain cases. One's own health, the health of relatives, 
or the proximity of one's other interests to the school, have given to Colo- 
rado, at half their value, a number of teachers worth from $2,000 to $3,000. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 63 

TABLE 38. 
Distribution of Annual Salaries Exclusive of Chief School Officer. 



Schools. 

Denver 


Under 

$600 

M. W. 


$600- 

700 

M. W. 


$700- 
800 
M. W. 
2 4 


$800- 

900 

M. W. 


$900- 
1000 
M. W. 
1 1 


$1000- 
1100 
M. W. 
4 


Other North Central 




2 


1 


3 


5 


16 


6 


34 


21 


46 


19 25 


Other Accredited 




1 


2 


16 


4 


33 


7 


19 


14 


7 


4 2 


Non-Accredited 


. 1 
. 1 


7 
6 


2 
2 


24 
32 


2 
10 


18 
44 


2 


3 

32 


2 
24 


1 

47 


1 


District (except Denver) . . 


21 25 


Union 




3 


2 


7 




11 


1 


7 


5 




1 1 


Coiintv 




1 

M- 
00 
6 


1 4 

$1200- 

1300 

6 17 


1 12 

$1300- 
IJOO 
4 8 


3 17 

$1400- 

1500 

19 30 


8 7 

$1500- 
1600 
6 19 


1 2 


Denver 


$111 
12 
. 4 


$1600- 
1800 
9 10 


Other North Central 


. 10 


18 


13 


17 


7 


8 


7 


5 


13 


1 


7 .. 


Other Accredited 


. 5 




1 


6 


1 




1 










Non-Accredited 










District (except Denver).. 


. 9 


18 


12 


17 


6 


8 


7 


5 


13 


1 


7 


Union 


. 1 




1 




1 














County 

Denver 


5 




1 


fi 


1 




1 














$1800- 

2000 

2 1 


$2000- 

2200 

6 .. 


$2200- 

2400 

1 . . 


$2400- 
2600 


$2600- 

and over 

3 . . 



Other North Central 1 .. 1 .. 1 .. 2 .. 1 .. 

Other Accredited 

Non-Accredited 

District (except Denver) 1 .. 1 .. 1 .. 2 .. 1 .. 

Union 

County 

Table 38 gives the distribution of salaries for all kinds of schools. It 
excludes the chief school officer of the district. Men and women are listed 
separately. The large difference between the salaries of the sexes renders 
it valueless to compare the whole teaching force of any school or class of 
schools with that of another, since one school might appear to have gen- 
erally higher salaries due to the employment of a larger percentage of 
men. The two phenomena of salary and sex distribution would then be 

^°''^"^^^- TABLE 39. 

Salaries, Exclusive of Chief School Officer. 
M 
Schools. Men. 

Denver $1480 

Other North Central 1155 

Other Accredited 953 

Non-Accredited 775 

District (except Denver) . . 1077 

Union 960 

County 975 

Total (except Denver) 



n. 




Mode. 


;Vomen. 


Men. 


Women. 


$1435 


$1400-1500 


$1400-1500 


970 


900-1000 


900-1000 


776 


900-1000 


700-800 


684 


9 


600-700 


908 


900-1000 


900-1000 


741 


900-1000 


700-800 


844 


900-1000 


800-900 



64 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

TABLE 39.— Concluded. 

Average. Teachers, Including Supt. 

Schools. M. W. M. W. M. W. 

Denver $1568 .$1390 63 100 64 100 

Other North Central 1220 997 115 175 145 176 

Other Accredited 963 811 39 84 73 84 

Non-Accredited 772 '713 9 54 50 61 

District (except Denver).. 1188 922 129 235 195 238 

Union 975 740 12 29 33 34 

County 1018 915 22 49 40 49 

Total (except Denver) ... 163 313 268 321 

The summaries of Table 39 scarcely call for further comment than that 
the salaries explain the differences in tenure. The salaries in district, union 
and county schools differ n^ more than the relative proportions of North- 
Central-Association, small accredited and non-accredited schools composing 
each would lead one to expect. The effect of the salary in effeminizing the 
teaching force is evident. Few married men or men of a domestic turn of 
mind can keep pace with the demands in education, and still live on $60 to 
$80 per month for the year. The only obstacle to practically complete fem- 
inization of the smaller schools is the higher salary paid to the male princi- 
pal or superintendent. When he is taken into consideration, the lower schools 
are in general as much under masculine influence as any. Nevertheless five 
four-year schools were run wholly by women, one in a district system of six- 
teen teachers with not a single man in it. On the other hand, seven four- 
year schools were operated exclusively by men. 

Considering schools as units, excessive amounts of variation appear be- 
tween schools of the same class in Table 40. Small accredited and the non- 
accredited schools are more nearly homogeneous than North-Central-Associ- 
ation schools, due to less variety in size and complexity. Only the chief 
school officer of the system is omitted. If the high-school principal, where 
some one is so designated, also were omitted, the variation would not be 
diminished perceptibly with reference to women, since very few act as high- 
school principals. Nor would the situation be changed to any great degree 
with respect to men. In a large school the much larger salary of the high- 
school principal has a proportionately greater weight to overcome than in 
the smaller school, so it cannot swing the average far. 

TABLE 40. 

AVER.\GE S.M.ARIES OF HiGH-SCHOOL ASSISTANTS. 

Schools Under $600 $600-800 $800-1000 

M. W. M. W. M. W. 

North Central . . 2 5 8 20 

Other Accredited 1 4 2I 17 6 

Non-Accredited 4- Year 1 4 5 28 4 2 

District 1 3 8 35 ig 19 

Union 2 2 11 '^ '' 

County 1 g I 7 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



65 



Schools. 

North Central 

Other Accredited . . . . 
Non-Accredited 4-Year 

District 

Union 

County 









$1400 


$1000-1200 


$1200- 


1400 


and over 


M. W. 


M. 


W. 


M. W. 


9 6 


6 


2 


6 


1 2 


1 


1 


1 


1 








8 8 


6 


2 


6 


1 








1 1 


1 


1 


1 



Medians and averages are not given because they would be inexact when 
based on such broad groupings. The medians run somewhat lower than 
those of Table 39, from a few dollars up to $65. 

Teachers work in all possible combinations, but the opportunities for 
departmental work are very different. The differences by sex are shown in 
Table 41. No superintendent or high-school principal was considered, but 
several of the teachers of "special" subjects throughout all grades of the 
school were included. To be regarded as high-school teachers all others had 
not over one class each outside the department in which their principal work 
lay, and spent over half their time in the high school. 

TABLE 41. 
Salaries by Sex in Various Departments. 



Salary. English. German. Spanish. Latin. History. 

M. W. M. W. M. W. M. W. M. W. 

$600-700 

$700-800 8 1 .. 1 

$800-900 11 . . 3 4 . . . . 

$900-1000 1 12 .. 1 5 4 4 

$1000-1100 2 8 .. 1 .. .. 1 1 .. 2 

4.. 1.. 2.. 4.. 3 
9.. 3.. 1.. 1 1 2 

4.. 2 3.. 4 

10.. 2 1.. .. 1 4 3 

1 1 3 2 1.. 

1 

2 .. 1.. .. 1 2 2.. 



Mathe- 
matics. 



M. 



$1100-1200 2 

$1200-1300 

$1300-1400 

$1400-1500 2 

$1500-1600 2 



$1600-1700 
$1700-1800 
$1800-1900 
$1900-2000 
$2000-2100 
$2100-2200 



W. 
2 
3 
3 
5 
2 
3 
9 
1 
2 
4 
2 
1 



Totals 10 70 

Median— Men $1300 

Median— Women $1050 

Average— Men $1300 

Average — Women $1109 



1 17 



2 24 12 20 18 37 



1550 


1450 


1400 


1425 


1204 


1283 


1175 


1125 


1204 


1206 


1550 


1450 


1400 


1325 


1244 


1262 


1183 


1162 


1210 


1166 



66 



UXIVER8ITY OF COLORADO. 



TABLE 41.— Concluded. 



Salary. 



Man. Tr. 

Science, and Mech. 

Drawing. 

M. W. M. W. 



$600-700 1 

$700-800 1 

$800-900 1 

$900-1000 5 

$1000-1100 9 

$1100-1200 5 

$1200-1300 10 

$1300-1400 3 

$1400-1500 3 

$1500-1600 4 

$1600-1700 4 

$1700-1800 1 

$1800-1900 2 

$1900-2000 1 

$2000-2100 1 

$2100-2200 2 



Drawing 

and 
Design. 
M. W. 



Commer- 
cial. 



Dom. 
Science. 



M. W. INI 



W. 

3=* 

3 

6 

1 

4 
3 

2 
1 



Phys. 

Educa- 
tion. 

M. \X. 



Totals 5; 



5 18 



7 14 21 13 



26 



1416 


1150 




1150 


1443 


883 


967 


1450 


1264 


1193 




1250 


1414 


981 


992 


1450 



Median— Men $1245 1383 

Median — Women $1050 

Average— Men $1608 1344 

Average — Women $1030 .... 

The women have practically a monopoly on language work outside of 
English. They also show a great numerical superiority in Mathematics and 
lead nearly two to one in History. Science has been almost wholly appro- 
priated by men. Manual Training and Shop, with which Mechanical Draw- 
ing is often combined, is a field for men. Where only Drawing, Freehand 
or Mechanical, is taught, combined sometimes with Design, the women forge 
ahead. Domestic Arts has been preempted by the women, Agriculture by the 
men. The latter is not separately listed, because there are only three men 
that could be designated teachers of that subject. Their salaries fall below 
the norm of teachers of Science, with whom they have been included. Com- 
mercial courses and Physical Education are divided between the sexes some- 
what as might have been expected. Even when superintendents have been 
omitted, women still fill a greater number of "general utility" places than 
do men in proportion to numbers of each sex engaged. Preparation for de- 
partmental work instead of general work is less safe for a woman than for 
a man. 



* Two received between $500 and 



500. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 67 

Medians and averages indicate the remuneration in tlie different fields. 
Where less than a half-dozen cases are the basis of the summary, the prob- 
able error becomes large (e. g., men teachers of Latin), unless the measure- 
ments are closely grouped (e g., women teachers of Spanish). Though the 
salaries for men in general have been found to exceed those of women by a 
wide margin, the women receive higher salaries than men in Manual Arts 
and crowd the men closely in Mathematics. As a result of the deficient prepa- 
ration demanded, commercial work and Domestic Arts are most poorly paid 
for women, and the commercial department presents the poorest opening for 
men. If men of practical business experience are to be secured for this work 
salaries must be moved up considerably. Otherwise the school can secure 
only the "beaten" mau from the business world; the competition is very 
direct. Opportunities for young men in Manual Arts are as good as any- 
where, and a number of men who have succeeded as contractors or artisans 
have entered this field. Women do not seem to have proven highly success- 
ful as teachers of Science. Their salaries in that line are low. If inclined to 
the traditional academic subjects, men will see most of promise in History 
and Science, and women will be attracted toward German and History. 

The salaries dealt with m this departmental analysis seem very high in 
comparison with the general level of salaries, because departmental teachers 
are not found so often in the smaller schools with their smaller salaries. It 
may also be well to observe that all medians and averages in this section on 
"Salary" are higher than the actual medians and averages. The group, .$700- 
800, for example, includes those receiving $700, but not those receiving $800. 
But, especially where the salaries are highest, the annual salary is very often 
so many hundreds of dollars. Thus the actual average of any group is not 
much above its inferior limit, while the estimates throughout this treatment 
have regarded it as midway between the inferior and superior limits. 

The salary schedule is related to the various other aspects of the 
teaching staff almost as closely as the salary itself, depending on the 
length of time it has been in effect and the rigidity with which it is adhered 
to. The small majority of the accredited schools have now a schedule of 
some sort, but only three non-accredited schools have defined their policy. 
It does not follow that all the others pay an invariable salary for a certain 
piece of work, but in the absence of a salary schedule, there are many which 
do not increase. This is ruinous to stability in the small schools, deaden- 
ing to the new teachers, discouraging to the old. The incentive is to "hold 
on" until a better chance is offered. Nevertheless, it may also be said that a 
salary schedule based purely on term of service can exert an equally bad 
and similar effect. The attitude of teachers in some schools where salary 
increase is quite automatic, their failure to continue their preparation along 
professional lines, and their personal statements in some cases are the 
authority for such an opinion. 

The most common form of salary schedule still is based almost abso- 
lutely on tenure. There is a minimum for beginners with a stated increase 



68 UXIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

if his efficiency is such as to secure re-election, until a certain maximum 
is attained. "Increase at option of board", "Increase according to merit", 
"Increase if satisfactory", etc., do not in themselves constitute a salary 
schedule unless certain terms are defined. The data can best be given in 
tabular fashion. 

Regui..\r Ixcrease Each Year of Service: 

Monthly Salary. 

$70-$75-$80— 1 school. 

$70-$125 by $5 increases — 1 school. 

$75-$80-$85 — 2 schools. 

$75-$90 by $5 increases — 2 schools. 

$75-$95 by $5 increases — 1 school. 

$80-$85— 1 school. 

$80-385-$90 and thereafter at option of board — 1 school. 

$85-$90-$95— 2 schools. 

$85-$100 by $5 increases — 2 schools. 

$90-$95-$100— 2 schools. 

$90-$105 by $5 increases — 1 school. 

$90-$95-$100-$lll— 1 school. 

Annual Salary: 

-$960 by $50 increases — 1 school. 
)-$1100 by $100 increases— 1 school. 

$800-$1000 minimum according to experience and training. By $50 
increases to $1200, thereafter by special action of board — 1 school. 

$900 first year, $1000 second year — 1 school. 

$950-$1200 by $50 increases on recommendation of superintendent for 
demonstrated efficiency — 1 school. 

$960-$1080-$1200, if promoted at all— 1 school. 

$900-$1400 for women, $1000-$1600 for men, by $96 increases— 1 school. 

$1000-$1300 by $100 increases, entrance to higher class on recom- 
mendation of principal and superintendent with $100 increases to 
$1600, repeat as before to limit of $2200—1 school. 

MiMMA AND Maxima Only Fixed: 
Minima. 

$75—3 schools. 

$80—1 school. 

$95—1 school. 
Maxima. 

$900 for women, $990 for men— 1 school. 

Exceptions: 

Principal $100-$115— 1 school. 

Teacher of Agriculture $1000-1500—1 school. 

Special teachers given higher salary — 1 school. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 69 

F. PERSONALITY. 

The perfectly tangible factors connected with teaching staff have been 
considered, but this section should not be closed without reference to that 
element in all teachers for which supervisors are looking, but which has 
not been fully defined, not to say analyzed. Several studies have been at- 
tempted of personality in teachers by the "qualities-of-merit" route, but much 
pioneer work is here to be done before the fundamental problem of teacher 
rating can be so attacked as to afford any satisfaction to raters and rated 
or any ground for agreement between them. 

Superintendents and principals were asked to select the teachers 
whom they would least like to lose from their force and run the 
risk of replacing. The number of assistants selected depended upon the 
number on full time, one selection being made from a force of two to four 
assistants, two from a force of four to ten, three from a force of ten to 
twenty, and four from a force of over twenty. In this way it was expected 
to get a list of teachers of greatest general serviceability and at the same 
time the rarest qualities. To avoid an artificial splitting up of personality, 
the supervisor was then asked to indicate from one to three qualities, which 
in his opinion contributed most to the efficiency of each teacher selected. 

That there might be some uniformity to answers, eight general rubrics 
were printed on the sheet and termed a "suggestive list", to which raters 
were invited to add as they saw fit. The "suggestive list" or rubrics ap- 
pears below, preceded by letters. The number of times each trait was 
mentioned is placed to the right: 

a. Ability to maintain discipline 71 

b. Energy 55 

c. Health 23 

d. Interest in extra-classroom activities 50 

e. Personal appearance (physical) 17 

f. Sense of humor 24 

g. Skill in instruction 88 

h. Sympathy and adaptability 58 

Scholarship 12 

Interest in work 8 

Tact 3 

Loyalty ■ 3 

Ability to get work from students, industry, initiative, leadership, social 
standing, devotion to school, and dependability were each mentioned twice. 
A dozen others secured mention once each. Some of the scattering traits 
might have been crowded under one or another of the main rubrics, but 
the general position of the main headings would not have been affected 
in the least. Very large differences appear between traits that are com- 
monly mentioned in connection with merit. Scholarship was not placed in 
the suggestive list because it was sought to place the emphasis of this 



70 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

study on native rather than acquired traits. The two dominant traits, a and 
h, are the ones most difficult to gauge by the ordinary personal interview. 

Though the teachers were indicated on the ratings by letters instead 
of names to make the work as impersonal as possible, several facts were 
learned regarding most of the group of approximately a hundred. There 
were twenty-eight men and sixty women reported. In this same proportion 
the sexes enter into the teaching force as a whole, supervisors excepted. 
But the conclusion that a man is as likely as a woman to be an "A-1" teacher, 
may be impaired somewhat by the fact that all the rating was done by men. 
Do men see the virtues of men just as plainly as they do those of women? 
Personal views of this question will modify for each person the meaning of 
the figures just given. 

The tenure of this group of teachers of merit seems very little higher 
than that of teachers in genei-al. Four-fifths of the whole body of teachers 
have been less than five years in their present positions, three-fourths of 
the teachers of merit have a tenure of less than five years. But another 
and closer comparison is that of the tenui'e of the selected teachers with 
that of their fellow faculty members. Fifty-eight have been longer in their 
schools than the others on an average, and thirty-three have not been there 
so long as the others. Schools do show their appreciation of merit by 
giving somewhat better tenure. 

However, it may be that the excellent teacher moves on rapidly because 
of salary inducements. The median salary of this group is $1000, the mode 
$800-900, the average about $1050. Considering that few were rated from 
non-accredited schools because there were not two assistants on full time, 
one must compare the salaries of this group v/ith those of men and women 
jointly in accredited schools (see Table 39). The excellent teacher is not 
receiving on the whole a higher salary than his fellows. But if the more 
direct comparison is made once more, it is found that the rated teacher is 
above the average of his faculty in sixty-five cases, and below in twenty- 
eight. If the comparison be with faculty members of his own sex, the figures 
remain practically unchanged. 

In total teaching experience the median for the teachers rated is about 
eight years, the average some nine and a half years. This is considerably 
above similar figures for the entire teaching force. The conclusion is the 
same when the comparison is made between the rated teacher and the 
average of the faculty to which he belongs. Fifty-eight lie above the aver- 
age of their faculties, thirty-eight fall below. 

In preparation, the high-class teacher also has a clear advantage. Fifty- 
two times he exceeds the average of his faculties, and only nineteen times 
is he exceeded by it. In twenty-six cases there is no difference. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATIOX. 



71 



V. THE COURSE OF STUDY. 

Great difficulty was experienced in ascertaining the course of study 
of many schools. In the small ones there has been no adoption, or if 
there has been one, it lies unknown in the minutes of some board meeting. 
The present administration, which is young enough, has proceeded in its 
own way, adding here and eliminating there. In some schools, accredited 
and non-accredited, ambitious outlines have been printed, showing various 
units that have never been offered. This has sometimes tended palpably 
to deceive people inside and outside the district as to the opportunities 
furnished by the school. For this survey announcements that savor of fake 
advertising have not been consulted. Courses are reported as they are, not 
as it is hoped they may be. 

A. OFFERINGS. 

The courses of nearly all four-year, 6 three-year, 24 two-year, and 61 
one-year schools were obtained. Wherever the totals of the following table 
fall short of these figures, it should be understood that returns were per- 
haps incomplete from a few schools: 

TABLE 42. 
NuMBKR OF Schools by Total Offerixgs. 
Accredited Non-Accredited 
(except Denver) 4-Year 3-Year 



Units: 

Under 8 

8-9 

9-10 . . . . 

10-11 . . . 

11-12 . . . 

12-13 . . . 

13-14 . . . 

14-15 . . . 

15.-16 ... 

16-17 . . . 

17-18 . . . 

18-19 ... 

19-20 ... 

20-21 . . . 

21-22 ... 

22-23 . . , 

23-24 . . , 

24-25 . . 

25-26 . . 

26-27 .. 

27-28 .. 



2- Year 

2 

18 

1 

1 
1 
1 



3 
3 

5 
11 

7 

7 
5 

2 

i 

2 



2 
14 
2 
7 
2 
5 
1 
2 



72 



UNIVERSITY OF COLON A DO. 



its: 
28-29 


(except Denver) 
4 


29-30 


1 


30-31 


2 


31 and over. . 
Total 


3 

58* 



TABLE 42 —Concluded. 
Accredited Non-Accredited 
4-Year 



3-Year 



2-Year 



36 



24 



The type for two-year and non-accredited four-year schools is clearly 
apparent, but not for accredited schools, since these vary enormously in 
teaching force. There is no justification for the smaller schools showing 
the amount of variation from the mode that a few do. It means that some 
schools are piling up work on teacher and students to the utter disregard 
of standards. In the one-year schools several offer less than four sub- 
jects, and several others offer five or six. This larger number of subjects 
does not mean that the principle of election is being applied but rather that 
all students pursue that many subjects as against four or four and a frac- 
tion in the more fully developed schools. 

TABLE 43. 
Number of Schools by Offerings in Different Depart:ments 



Two-Year Schools: 

Latin , 

German 

English 

History 

Mathematics 

Science 

Commercial 

Manual Training.... 

Mech. and Freehand 

Drawing 

Three- Year Schools: 

Latin 

German 

English 

History 

Mathematics 

Science 

Commercial 



Length of Course in Years. t 
Under 1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 



13 

2 
19 
19 

20 
2 



7-8 Total 

18 

6 

22 

22 

21 

7 

4 

1 



* Denver schools and a few others not reported. 

t "Length of course in years" is to be distinguished from units offer 
some subjects it is nearly the same, for others, quite different. 



•d. For 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



73 



TABLE 43— Concluded. 

Length of Course in Years 



Non-Accredited 4-Yr. Schools: Under 1 1-2 



Latin 

German 

French 

Spanish 

English 

History 

Mathematics 

Science 

Commercial 

Manual Training 

Mech. & Freehand Drw'g. 

Domestic Arts 

Teacher Training 



2 
10 
2 
1 
1 
6 
1 
4 
13 
3 
1 
3 
2 



2-3 
18 
22 

1 

4 

24 

16 

21 

6 

2 

1 



3-4 

11 

3 



18 
31 
15 



4-5 
16 



33 
2 
1 

6 

2 
4 



5-6 6 



8 Total 
47 
35 

2 

2 

46 

50 

49 

49 

28 

10 

2 

6 

4 



Accredited Schools: 

Greek 

Latin 

German 

French 

Spanish 

English 

History 

Mathematics 

Science 

Commercial 

Manual Training 

Mech. & Freehand Drw'g. 

Domestic Arts 

Teacher Training 



1 
11 

8 

5 
12 

5 



1 
11 
38 

1 



1 
4 
6 
1 

7 
34 
49 
21 

6 



45 
14 



54 
19 

7 
17 
4 
4 
6 
5 



1 
5* 



2 
60 
59 



61 

61 
63 
55 
40 
20 
14 
29 
14 



These statistics define certain practices as dominant, e. g., the offering 
of four years of English, of either two or four years of a foreign language, 
of three years of Mathematics. There is some agreement in these respects 
as to what constitutes a "well-balanced course of study '. They show with 
equal plainness that there is less agreement as to the place of History, and 
that there is no agreement as to the place of Science, except in short- 
course schools, where it is a sort of fifth choice. On all vocational subjects 
there is still wider disagreement. 



Two of the five offer eight years of work. 



74 



UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 



TABLE 44. 
Number of School? by Offerings ix Divisions of Departments. 



One- Year Schools: 
History: 

Ancient 

Medieval and Modern.. 

General 

Mathematics: 

Algebra 

Mental Arithmetic .... 
Science: 

Agriculture 

Botany 

Elementary Science . . . 

Physics 

Physiology 

Physical Geography. . . . 

Commercial: 

Bookeeping 

Commercial Geography. 

Two-Year Schools: 
History: 

Ancient 

Medieval and Modern... 

General 

English 

American 

Civics 

Mathematics: 

Algebra 

Plane Geometry 

Science: 

Agriculture 

Botany 

Elementary Science . . . 
Physical Geography. . . . 

Physiology 

Zoology 

Commercial: 

Bookkeeping 

Arithmetic 

Typewriting 



Under 
.5 .5-1 



Length of Course in Years 

2.5 and 
1.5-2. 2.-2.5 over Total 



1.-1.5 
42 

1 

4 

58 
1 

5 
2 
1 
1 
1 
19 

3 

2 



19 
17 
2 
2 
1 
1 

17 

18 



42 
1 
4 

58 
1 



1 

1 

1 

19 

3 

2 



19 

18 
2 
3 
3 

2 

22 
20 

2 
4 
1 
4 
1 
1 

3 
1 
1 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



75 



TABLE 44 — Continued. 



Three- Year Schools: 
History: 

Ancient 

Medieval and Modern . . 

English 

American 

Mathematics : 

Algebra 

Plane Geometry 

Solid Geometry 

Science: 

Agriculture 

Botany 

Elementary Science. . . . 

Physical Geography. . . . 

Physics 

Zoology 

Commercial: 

Arithmetic 

Commercial Geography. 
Non-Accredited 4-Year Schools: 
History: 

Ancient 

JMedieval and Modern.. 

General 

English 

American 

Civics 

Economics 

Mathematics: 

Algebra 

Plane Geometry 

Solid Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Arithmetic 

Science : 

Agriculture 

Astronomy 

Biology 

Botany 

Chemistry 

Elementary Science. . . . 

Geology 

Physical Geography 



Under 
.5 



Length of Course in Years 

2.5 and 



,5-1 
1 



1 

1 

1 

17 

16 

15 

6 



1 

25 

1 

1 

7 

1 

4 

19 



27 



1.-1.5 

5 
3 
3 



1.5 



2. 2.-2.5 over Total 



33 
24 
15 
6 
6 
1 
1 

10 
44 

2 



2 
6 
24 
1 
2 
3 



28 



I 



76 



UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 



TABLE 44— Continued. 

Length of Course in Years 



Under 
.5 .5-1 



2.5 and 
1.-1.5 1.5-2. 2.-2.5 over Total 



Physics 

Physiology 

Zoology 

Commercial: 

Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Commercial Law 

Commercial Geography. 

Penmanship 

Stenography 

Typewriting 

Accredited Schools: 
History: 

Ancient 

Medieval and Modern.. 

General 

English 

American 

Civics 

Economics 

Industrial 

Mathematics: 

Algebra 

Plane Geometry 

Solid Geometry 

Trigometry 

Arithmetic 

Science: 

Agriculture 

Astronomy 

Botany . , 

Chemistry 

Elementary Science . . . 

Geology 

Physical Geography . . . . 

Physics 

Physiology 

Zoology* 

Commercial : 

Arithmetic 

Bookkeeping 

Business English 



2 
13 

11 

13 

3 



10 

52 

48 

4 

3 



56 

.16 

3 

3 

3 

34 

5 
11 

27 

10 
34 

19 
5 
3 



44 



56 
51 
5 
15 
3 
4 
1 
1 

3 
63 



7 
59 

7 

2 
10 
60 

1 



14 

22 



56 



44 

3 

15 

18 
22 
6 
6 
1 
3 
4 



57 

51 

5 

25 

55 

52 

5 

4 

63 
63 
56 
16 

5 

13 
3 
41 
59 
12 
13 
37 
60 
11 
34 

33 

32 



Biology has been reported as Botany and Zoology. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



77 



TABLE 44— Concluded. 

Length of Course in Years 

2.5 and 



Under 
.5 



Com'l Correspondence. 

Com'l Geography 

Com'l Law 

Penmanship 

Stenography 

Typewriting 



.5-1 1.-1.5 1.5-2. 



15 

13 

2 



15 



2.-2.5 over 


Total 

2 




17 




14 




4 


7 


16 


12 


28 



On the amount of time to be devoted to a division of a department there 
is a large measure of agreement. The figures fall principally into two 
columns for all of the headings. The disposition of non-accredited schools 
to jump more rapidly from one field to another appears from the fact that 
no accredited school gives any subject for less than a half-year, so far as 
this analysis discloses. Greek, Commercial Correspondence, and Business 
English are the only subjects found in none but accredited schools. Detailed 
comparisons of many kinds can be carried through at will. For example, 
General and English History and Economics are much more popular in non- 
accredited schools, American History less so, and Civics much less so than 
in accredited ones. 

Analyses of other departments can possibly be made in the course of 
time if data is made available, but this can not come in some directions 
except through more definite organization. English is as complex as His- 
tory, but it is so co-ordinated (or mixed) at present that it defies analysis. 
The same is true of modern-language work. Where over a unit is offered 
Agriculture can easily be split up at present. 

B. ARRANGEMENT OF COURSES. 

The place of many subjects in the curriculum is closely fixed. In the 
two schools where Greek occurs, it comes as late in the course as its 
length permits. In three two-year and two four-year non-accredited schools, 
the single year of Latin is placed in the tenth year. One of the accredited 
schools puts this subject in the last two years. Otherwise it is always open 
to freshmen. German is open to freshmen in accredited schools, no matter 
how little of it is given, but all other classes of schools show varying ar- 
rangements. Some begin a single year of the language in the tenth, others 
in the twelfth grade. But most schools offering two years place that in 
the junior and senior schedule. French is taken by no freshmen, but the 
two years of Spanish is as often ninth and tenth as it is eleventh and 
twelfth. When English does not run throughout the course, it is almost 
always omitted in the last year. 

General History is nearly all confined to the ninth and tenth years, 
and the customary year of it is sixty per cent oftener in the freshman 
schedule than elsewhere. Ancient History runs strongly to the ninth year, 
but strikes the tenth in ten accredited schools and some others. "Medieval 
and Modern" follows "Ancient", lapping into the eleventh year more often 
than "Ancient" did into the tenth. In twenty-two accredited schools it is a 



78 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

junior study. English History usually comes next, and is regularly eleventh, 
year, but straggles considerably over the whole course. American History 
is normally twelfth-year, but it also straggles except in accredited schools. 
There it is offered twice to juniors and fifty-three times to seniors. Civics 
runs as a correlate with or sequel to the American History, so it falls nearly 
every time to seniors in their last semester. Economics has been put at the 
end of the course because of its supposed difficulty, and Industrial History 
shows the same tendency. 

Algebra is habitually taken up on entering high school. Most abandon 
it at the end of a year for Plane Geometry. This gives place in the junior 
year to Advanced Algebra and Solid Geometry for a half-year each, with 
the Algebra, as a rule, preceding. A dozen schools, only one of them ac- 
credited, try to complete the Algebra first and find it sometimes taking two 
years. Then Plane Geometry goes into the eleventh year and "Solid" is 
forced into the twelfth. Trigonometry is by all means a senior subject. 
The few Arithmetic offerings are mainly for upper classmen. A prominent 
principal maintains that Algebra is too hard for freshmen and is setting the 
traditional course back a whole year in his school. 

Agriculture for a year or less may be called a freshman or sophomore 
subject. Astronomy finds its station further up. Botany is everywhere, but 
falls into the tenth grade over half the time. Zoology is either ninth or 
tenth. Biology is hardly a freshman study, but is being tried everywhere 
else. Whether taught in the same school or not. Physiography seems to be 
generally considered as more elementary than Geology. Elementary Sci- 
ence usually comes where the elements by inference would come, but two 
non-accredited schools have made it a junior branch. Physiology is every- 
where except in the senior year. Physics and Chemistry are divided between 
the last two years. About seventy per cent of the schools give Physics 
first and Chemistry second. The others reverse the order. Seventy and 
thirty, however, over-represent the difference as the students actually take 
them, for most non-accredited schools alternate them year by year to avoid 
loss of teaching energy. 

Every division of commercial study is by some school or other placed 
in the ninth year. This is the consequence of popular clamor for some- 
thing practical. Many schools hold all commercial work, except Business 
English, out of the ninth year on the assumption that the child is not then 
ready to specialize either intelligently or successfully. Bookkeeping, Com- 
mercial Geography and Commercial Arithmetic, with Commercial Corre- 
spondence and Business English, are the first to be taken up in general. 
Commercial Law, Stenography, and Typewriting are the ones most likely to 
be deferred. 

Other special subjects, such as Manual Training, Mechanical and Free- 
hand Drawing, Domestic Arts, are scattered through the curriculum as far 
as they will reach from the bottom up. Teacher-training classes, on the 
other hand, are senior, rarely junior. 

Recitations are five times per week in all languages except Latin and 
English. An almost negligible number of schools drop to four and three 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGHfiCHOOL EDUCATION. 70 

in these two languages. Halt of the exception is produced by North-Central- 
Association schools, which with forty-five minute periods are able to pre- 
sent the minimum number of hours in recitation, and still meet only four 
times, one semester. In the different divisions of History the same thing 
is true of accredited schools, none of which ever drop below four times 
per week. Non-accredited schools show a slight scattering down to two 
times per week. The same thing occurs in Mathematics as in History. 
Variations from the type in non-accredited schools all through are mostly 
accounted for by two overcrowded principaLs, who are running many sub- 
jects on the plan of two or three times per week to keep recitations of rea- 
sonable length. 

The Science falls below five periods per week in even fewer cases. 
Scattering accredited schools have placed this or that science on a labora- 
tory basis running from five up to ten periods per week. Physics and 
Chemistry are the only divisions that often allow extra periods for labora- 
tory work, but about forty per cent of the accredited and non-accredited 
schools hold these also to five periods per week. Teachers who have less 
than seven periods (which normally include two double laboratory periods) 
express a great deal of dissatisfaction over the haste and superficiality nec- 
essary to cover the customary ground. One very large school has placed 
all its Science on the basis of a double period daily, which allows for both 
laboratory work and supervised study. The results have been gratifying. 

In commercial departments a few non-accredited schools have classes 
meeting two or three times per week, because they are alternating with 
one another. Accredited schools operate the work here, except Typewriting 
and Bookkeeping, on the same principle as they do the other departments. 
These two in a large minority of the schools call for ten periods per week 
in the commercial rooms, but do not then require much outside work. 
When Typewriting comes only five periods per week, it often carries only 
half the credit of a standard subject. 

Drawing, Manual Training, and Domestic Arts meet two or four periods, 
getting in double periods where possible, and interfering materially with the 
rest of the program. Some students miss one recitation out of five in other 
departments to get these special subjects. Several schools have Drawing 
and Domestic Arts one single period per week, but the greater number 
are making these half-credit studies by providing one period daily. About a 
half-dozen schools have arranged for ten periods per week and give a full 
credit. 

C. REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATION. 

The number of units required for graduation varies as follows: 

Schools. Under 15. lo-lG. HMT. 17 or over. 

Non-Accredited 1 14 35 

Accredited 17 45 1 

There is slightly less difference from the standpoint of the student 
than this range suggests. Schools requiring a greater number of units may 
give credit, and often do, for small amounts of Physical Culture, Music, 
Spelling, or Penmanship, which take but little time, sometimes serve as 

• 



80 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

recreations, or are compulsory in some other schools without credit. Fif- 
teen to sixteen units is about the actual range as the student feels it. 
Schools with the lower requirement graduate students sometimes in three 
years, and in a few of them the average student expects to complete his 
course in three years. One school has tried to recognize quality as well as quan- 
tity of work in graduating students. It has established a requirement of 
1350 units, which is to be secured by adding the grades secured in all sub- 
jects. If a student should average 90 in fifteen units he would secure the 
necessary total, but falling below 90, he must take over fifteen units. 

The disparity in requirements and offerings leaves room for election. 
Two general plans obtain in this State. First, thei'e is unlimited election 
after the completion of certain prescribed subjects. This is the plan in 
non-accredited schools so far as they are able to permit election. Second, 
there is election by groups of subjects. This is the arrangement in a fifth 
of the accredited schools. The groups may be rigid, but they are not often 
so after the first year or two of the course. From two-thirds to three-fourths 
of the course is prescribed, and the range of choice outside of that is nar- 
rowed somewhat. Absolute rigidity in a course has been found to drive 
students away from it. Where all courses are equally rigid, this is not 
possible. The college preparatory course, called by whatever name, is 
usually the least flexible. The difference in theory between the two prin- 
cipal forms of election seems to be over the propriety of requiring or per- 
mitting a limited specialization in high school. Group election is gener- 
ally, designed to compel the pupil to frame a definite aim and specialize 
thereto, but it may be so adjusted as to do exactly the opposite. "Where 
groups are wholly prescribed, the difference in theory rests upon the point 
as to whether the students of a school fall into some two to five classes 
with respect to needs, or whether there are as many different needs as there 
are students enrolled. 

Where election is unlimited after the completion of certain prescribed 
subjects, the number of units prescribed is as follows: 

Schools. Under 5. 5-9. 9-10. 10-11. 11-12. 12-13. 13-14. 14orover. 
Non- Accredited .... 2 1 3 5 4 5 3 

Accredited 2 3 6 6 5 7 6 

Apparently, Colorado represents all theories in reference to educational 
values, from the traditionalist who is sure of the worth of his subject, no 
matter who takes it, to the radical who will permit a student to earn a 
diploma by piling together any combination of the necessary magnitude. 
With regard to the latter, however, it is well to note that the breadth of 
election is not always so great as it seems, because the offerings are limited. 
The student's choice then is not so much any six to twelve units he desires, 
as rather what two or three he does not desire. 

The prescribed subjects may next be studied. No tally was made of 
the schools 7iot requiring any subject, but it may be approximated from the 
fact that some English is an almost universal requirement. For example, 
about seven of thirty-seven accredited schools require no foreign language 
(see Table 45). 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



81 



TABLE 45. 
NuJiBER OF Schools by Uxits Prescribed for Graduatiox. 

Units. 



12 
5 
3 

11 



14 
1 



11 



14 
5 



20 



4 

13 
5 



Non-Accredited Scliools: y^ 1 IV2 2 21/2 3 31/0 

Englisli 10 

Foreign language 1 .. 12 .. 2 

Latin 1 

German 

History 5 

Ancient 13 

Medieval and Modern 6 

General 5 

English 1 

American 5 1 

Civics 6 

Mathematics 

Algebra 14 

Plane Geometry 2 20 

Solid Geometry 

Science 

Biology 

Botany 

Chemistry 

Geology 

Physical Geography . . . 

Physics 13 

Zoology 3 

Accredited Schools: 

English 1 21 2 13 

Foreign language 14 . . 2 . . 6 

Latin 

German 

History 5 

Ancient 23 

Medieval and Modern 13 

Elnglish 2 1 

American . . 8 4 

Civics 9 1 

Mathematics 2 1 22 

Algebra 25 9 

Plane Geometry 1 30 1 

Solid Geometry 3 1 

Arithmetic (Commercial) 1 



Total 
23 
20 
6 



82 



UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 



TABLE 45— Concluded. 



Units. 



Non- Accredited Schools: 

Science 

Biology 

Botany 

Chemistry 

Elementary Science . . 
Physical Geography . . 

Physics 

Physics or Chemistry. 

Music 

Domestic Arts 

Manual Training 

Psychology 



1 

9 
5 
1 
15 
1 

23 

1 

3 
3 



11/2 
2 



2 
17 



21/2 



31/2 



Total 

33 

5 

2 

15 

1 

2 

23 

1 

1 

4 

4 

1 



Single units of foreign language are generally discouraged or forbid- 
den, The usual wording is, "Two units of one foreign language", or "Four units 
of two foreign languages". One school requires for graduation an interest- 
ing composite unit, which consists of ten credits. Music for four years 
makes up two credits; gymnasium work for four years, four credits; art 
for four years, one credit; attendance of 95%, punctuality of 95% and 
deportment of 85% for four years, the three remaining credits. 

The generally prescribed units in the schools working on the group 
system would not change the above very much. 



D. TEXTBOOKS. 

Many different textbooks hate secured holdings in the State. In some 
departments the diversity is confusing, in others there is almost uniform- 
ity. These two points are covered in Table 46. 

Texts of very different age sometimes are found to occupy substantially 
the same position, so far as holdings are concerned. A very new text 
may have numerous adoptions, but these are not based upon experience; 
they represent the advance judgment of people who have examined the 
work with more or less care. A young text which is gaining ground is evi- 
dently much more entitled to consideration than one which has been on 
the market for years and has many more adoptions but is at present los- 
ing ground. Were it deemed proper to publish the holdings of texts by 
name, many illustrations of this could be found. 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 



83 



TABLE 46. 

Different Texts 
Used. 
Accredl 



ted 
Schools. 
Latin : 

Beginning 9 

Caesar 7 

Cicero 7 

Virgil 8 

German : 

Beginning 9 

English: 

Rhetoric & Composition. 21 

English- Literature .... 7 

American Literature . . 13 

History: 

Ancient 5 

Medieval and Modern... 4 

English 7 

American 12 

Civics 12 

Economics 5 

Mathematics: 

Algebra 10 

Plane Geometry 11 

Solid Geometry 9 

Trigonometry 3 

Science : 

Agriculture 12 

Biology 8 

Botany 6 

Chemistry 6 

Elementary Science ... 4 

Geology 5 

Physical Geography.... 7 

Physics 8 

Physiology 8 

Zoology 8 

Commercial : 

Arithmetic 5 

Bookkeeping 7 

Commercial Law 5 

Commercial Geography. 7 



All 
Schools. 



16 

13 

8 

10 



17 



Per Cent of Total Adoptions Held by 
First Book Second Book 

Accred- .ii Accred- .n 

ited. '^"- ited. -*"• 



42 
32 
28 
40 

47 



52 
32 
35 
43 

39 



22 
28 
20 
11 

17 



22 
25 
24 
15 

17 



26 


24 


29 


22 


15 


12 


52 


47 


21 


20 


16 


16 


17 


14 


15 


5 


72 


83 


22 


13 


5 


68 


72 


19 


13 


10 


56 


42 


20 


30 


13 


24 


18 


22 


14 


16 


54 


41 


11 


13 


7 


40 


38 


30 


25 


15 


34 


25 


19 


21 


14 


53 


44 


25 


38 


10 


48 


45 


27 


27 


3 


80 


82 


10 


10 


18 


30 


43 


13 


11 


13 


63 


47 


25 


23 


9 


45 


51 


30 


17 


9 


42 


33 


25 


26 


4 


57 


85 


14 


5 


7 


46 


28 


18 


19 


13 


28 


28 


22 


18 


12 


60 


59 


22 


20 


8 


20 


17 


10 


12 


9 


28 


19 


17 


• 16 


7 


40 


39 


36 


34 


11 


31 


23 


26 


20 


8 


42 


33 


33 


18 


7 


29 


29 


24 


21 



84 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

VI. SUPERVISION. 

A. THE SUPERVISORS. 

The supervising body itself is difficult to define, but for purposes of 
simplicity it will be regarded as consisting of the chief school officer of 
each school. To this superintendent or principal will be added the individual 
recognized in reports from each school as "Principal of the High School", 
if such second person is reported. The practice is far from uniform in this 
regard. High schools of only forty or fifty students are sometimes placed 
especially under the direction of one more highly-paid teacher, who is rec- 
ognized as "Principal" by the head of all the schools of the district, and 
is given certain important administrative duties to perform. Other schools 
of much greater size are sometimes without any principal other than the 
superintendent or principal of the district. Duties that might be assigned 
to a principal of the high school then are divided among the teachers. 

Since the work and reward of the supervisor are quite distinct from 
those of his subordinates, it will be pertinent to examine the personnel of 
the body of supervisors and to see wherein it varies in character from the 
body of teachers supervised. 

Whatever be the danger of feminization of the schools, it is not immi- 
nent in the supervising force. Though a few small high schools have been 
feminized absolutely, as previously noted, there is little supervision by 
women in the larger schools. No union school of over one teacher has a 
woman in chief control, no county school has a woman as principal, and 
only two non-accredited high schools of over one teacher and one North- 
Central-Association school have a woman as superintendent. As second in 
command there are ten women, six in North-Central-Association and four 
in other accredited schools. This limited number must serve as a basis 
for comparisons. 

The median tenure of men supervisors is 4.3, 2.2, and 1.6 years, respec- 
tively, in North-Central-Association schools (except Denver), other accred- 
ited, and non-accredited four-year schools. Their average tenure for all 
sorts of districts is from twenty to sixty per cent greater than their median 
tenure. Compared with the tenure of men teachers in general (see Table 
36), the tenure of supervisors is from fifteen to sixty per cent better. 
Tenure for women supervisors is shorter than for men supervisors, but 
considerably longer than for women teachers. These facts offset somewhat 
the disintegrating effect produced in schools by the rapid change of teachers 
of the rank and file. 

Supervisors are of riper experience than those under their supervision. 
The median experience of superintendents and principals of high schools is 
14.9, 12, and 9.3 years for North-Central-Association, other accredited, and 
non-accredited schools, respectively. This is far above the medians of 
Table 30. Only two superintendents of accredited schools have less expe- 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 85 

rience than the average of their faculties, but the same can not be said of 
the high-school principal in four or five cases. On the other hand, the super- 
intendent of ten non-accredited schools has less experience than the aver- 
age of his faculty. 

The supervisors are so much older as a body that it is not easy to 
make a definite statement of their preparation without possibility of con- 
siderable error. Considered in relation to their own faculties, supervisors 
in non-accredited schools are superior to their teachers twice as often as 
they are inferior. For accredited schools their advantage decreases a little. 
But when their preparation is compared with that of all teachers, as shown 
in the first two columns of Table 26, the supervisors are about typical of 
the whole teaching force. 

An important problem connected with the supervisor is the amount of 
instructional work he should perform. This would presumably depend upon 
such elements as the number of teachers to be supervised, the size of the 
school as determining administrative duties, the provision of clerical assist- 
ance, the engagement of a clerk of the board aside from the superintendent, 
the recognition, in addition to the superintendent, of a high-school prin- 
cipal who discharges administrative and perhaps supervisory duties. This 
produces a situation too complex to be illuminated particularly by general 
comparisons with the practice of other schools. Nevertheless, certain 
schools contract the habit of asking or not asking the principal to do cer- 
tain things. There is probably no sufficient reason why the principal of 
one high school enrolling between three and four hundred should teach 
one class per day, while the principal of another school of equal size teaches 
four classes. The inequality is still further increased by a clerk for the 
first principal and none for the second. It is suggested that careful com- 
parisons be made by principals between other schools and their own in order 
to determine whether they are overworked. 

Salaries of supervisors are a less complex problem. In this connec- 
tion, too, there are great disparities between schools that are fairly in the 
same class. In spite of the fact that men receive on the whole much more 
liberal salaries, a woman principal with five teachers, one in the high school, 
which enrolls twenty-five and is not accredited, receives $1400, and a man 
with seven teachers, two in the high school, which enrolls fifty and is ac- 
credited, receives $1000. Differences in responsibility, living expenses, or 
the qualifications of the two persons do not warrant this difference in sal- 
ary. One school is rather isolated and does not have better examples 
brought to its attention; the other is in a cosmopolitan neighborhood with 
good schools and high salaries all around. As with reference to instruc- 
tional duties, comparisons should be made to bring a school somewhat 
into line with current practice, not merely as to total salary of supervisor, 
but as to the ratio of his salary to that of his assistants. Two principals, 
with, the same number of high-school assistants receiving the same salary, 
are paid $1000 and $1600, respectively. 



86 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

B. RECORDS AND REPORTS. 

The supervisor is primarily responsible for the booklteeping of the 
school. The financial side is always a liability; resources in the shape of 
student advancement must be recorded. The records consist of class and 
attendance registers, permanent records of students, and reports to the 
parent. The attendance register may be dismissed without further com- 
ment than has already been made relative to the desirability of uniform 
methods of computing attendance. 

A number of permanent records were collected, some giving very few 
items, others many. Half or more of the schools still use a large ledger 
with a page or half-page for each student. The loose-leaf system is being 
adopted as much easier to manipulate. Cards of light board may be used 
in a tray, ordinary good paper in a binder. Use of both sides is possible 
in the binder and reduces the bulk. A composite of the samples gathered 
suggests the following data as sufficient. 
Pupil — Full name, date of bii-th, dates of entrance and graduation, school 

from which he entered. 
Parents — Name, nationality (or race), and occupation of each. 
Intellectual^Subject, weeks pursued, periods per week, year and semester 
when taken, semester grade, credits, name of teacher. The general line 
of subjects should be printed on the record. Semester grades and 
credits are enough to check up the pupil's progress. Detail of the same 
by months, class-work and examination, can be secured from the class 
register of the teacher, which should always be preserved. Teachers 
will keep more satisfactory records when they realize that others will 
consult those records. Laboratory hours per week may be distinguished 
from others by enclosing them in parentheses. Only completed sub- 
jects should be entered in the regular spaces, but a space below or on 
the reverse of the sheet for notation of failures and incompletes is an 
important feature. Credits transferred from other schools should be 
entered in red. Other schemes for abbreviation without indefiniteness 
can be devised and printed at the bottom of the sheet. Classics read 
are sometimes placed on the back of each student's record. This en- 
tails a vast amount of work. The classics read in each English class 
year by year can be listed in a book with the names of the students 
passing the course. If the English course is definitely outlined and ad- 
hered to, it will be evident what classics each student has read. 
Moral — Half days present, half days absent, times tardy for each year. A 
brief space after each branch for concrete remarks by the teacher on 
deportment, application and other moral traits is superior to a grade 
in per cents. 
Physical — A very few schools give a physical examination on admission. 
One permanent record gives date of vaccination and name of physician 
performing it. These are the only evidences of the approach of the 
day when the physical progress of the student will be an object of care- 
ful record by the school. Tests of strength, lung capacity, or vital ca- 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 87 

pacity (the ratio of weight in pounds to lung capacity in cubic inches) 

might be recorded. They should show increase from year to year. 
Vocational — A space to record the special capacities and interests of the 

student year by year would be helpful. Taken partially from his own 

testimony and with his knowledge, it would at least put a motive into 

his work. 

The report card or folder is issued monthly in the majority of schools. 
Quarterly reports and reports six times a year are the other two methods, 
and are used about equally. Signature of parent is requested. One school 
sends monthly reports by mail, which are not returned. Another, which 
reports on all students quarterly, issues a report at the middle of each 
quarter in cases of unsatisfactory work, gives the teacher's opinion as to 
the cause, and asks the parent for suggestions. The common form of report 
card gives the grades in each subject, days present and absent, times tardy. 
Deportment by itself is often noted, but besides it are found such entries as 
"application", "earnestness", "progress", "effort", "industry", "manners". 
One school gives a grade on "effort in music and drawing". Not more than 
two moral traits are mentioned on any card except in four schools. These 
have printed a card with numerous specific comments on the attitude of 
the student toward his school work in general, his conduct, and the difficul- 
ties that appear in his recitations. A check can be placed after the com- 
ment the teacher desires to make, or the teachers can be numbered on the 
cards and teachers can use their numbers instead of checks. Letters to 
parents are regularly sent out in a very few places when students show 
deficiency, and they are reported to have a very good effect. The rank of 
the pupil is not often reported, though studies of grading indicate that it is 
probably more reliable than the grade. Occasionally, one finds special 
cards sent at the close of the year, listing all credits gained to date. One 
school places this information on the monthly report card. 

The per cent system of grading leads the literal ones. The latter nearly 
always give the meaning of the grades in numbers, which is very helpful 
in the transfer of students or in filling blanks for college entrance. The 
permanent record, however, is best kept in numbers. Literal systems are 
alike in having three or four letters to indicate passing grades. Usually it 
is three, each letter standing for ten points on the per cent scale. The 
custom is to use letters in their alphabetic order, beginning with A for 
the highest grade of efficiency, though some like systems in which the 
letter has a connection with the grade of work, as "E = excellent", etc. 
Seventy is a passing grade much oftener than seventy-five. Averages of 
seventy or eighty with a minimum of sixty-five or seventy are a not un- 
common requirement for graduation. 

C. DISCIPLINE. 

In these days of "soft pedagogy", some high schools annually go to 
pieces and almost nullify themselves. Or the efforts made to prevent 



88 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

such a catastrophe alienate the superintendent from his board and patrons 
and result in failure to re-elect him or some of his assistants. 

This question was asked in schools surveyed: What methods do you 
find most effective in the discipline of your students? The responses varied, 
but "Talking to them", "Personal talks", "Heart-to-heart talks", "Moral 
suasion", and "Oral reprimand", show the direction that is taken with high- 
school students. The prevalence of these rational, human methods is per- 
haps the reason why many principals of small schools had nothing to report. 
The close personal contact here solved the question before it came up. 
One principal said he gave "get-together" talks -when he saw clouds rising. 

Where other pressure is needed, suspension and detention after school 
are favorite methods. Keeping boys out of athletics, denial of playground 
or gymnasium privileges are effective. When a student is suspended he is 
sometimes sent home with a note telling of his offense, and asking for a 
statement from the parent. Letters are sent to parents from two schools. 
The student is re-admitted when he comes to a decision as to his future 
course and enters into an agreement. He may be required to propose his 
own penalty. Three schools reported expulsions; four lowered grades in 
deportment or other studies, endangering happy immunity from the exam- 
inations; two gave additional school work. Corporal punishment is rarely 
inflicted. Personal treatment and cooperation of home with school are 
pronounced the best of all. 

D. THE DAILY PROGRAM. 

The hour of opening for four-year schools is as follows; 

Hour. 8;00 8;30-8:44 8;45-8;59 9;00 9:01-9;15 

Schools 3 3 6 68 4 

The time of closing for the day is as follows; After 
Hour. 12; 45-12; 55 2; 20-2; 45 3; -3; 14 3; 15-3; 29 3; 30 3; 31-3; 45 3; 45 
Schools; 

Non-Accredited. . 1 .. 1 4 10 7 16 

Accredited 1 7 6 12 15 3 

The length of noon intermissions is as follows; 

Minutes. None. 20 30-45 60 65-70 75 80-95 
Schools; 

Non-Accredited 1 2 1 20 1 9 7 

Accredited 2 1 5 7 2 20 9 

The length of other intermissions can hardly be tabulated. Few accred- 
ited schools have any except as their size requires a little definite allow- 
ance for students to get from class to class. A breathing space of three or 
five minutes is sometimes allowed at the middle of the forenoon and again 
at the middle of the afternoon. Non-accredited schools generally have a 
fifteen-minute recess twice a day, though some imitate the accredited schools. 
Differences between the two classes with respect to intermissions and time 
of closing are principally due to the operation of non-accredited schools in 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 89 

the same building witli tlie grades, wliereas most accredited schools are in 
separate buildings. 

Periods in accredited schools are quite conventionalized. Rarely is a 
period under forty or over forty-five minutes. The upper figure is slightly 
the more common. In non-accredited schools recitations continue from ten 
to sixty minutes, but over half of the schools manage to keep their periods 
from forty to forty-five minutes. The consequence is that while accredited 
schools have from six to eight periods per day (seven in over five-sixths of 
the schools), non-accredited schools have as many as twelve periods per day. 
Half of them are able to keep below eight periods. 



90 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

VII. THE SCHOOL IN CONTACT WITH THE 
COMMUNITY. 

"The School for the Community" is the cry of the time in education. 
The cooperation of the forces of the two tells how near the slogan is to reali- 
zation. The signs of this contact in Colorado high schools may be summar- 
ized under three heads. 

A. OUTSIDE AGENCIES WORKING WITH THE SCHOOL. 

Parent-teacher associations embrace most of the outside organizations 
that get close to or into the school life and modify the school for greater 
community service. Sometimes they are called mothers' congresses, mothers' 
clubs, or community clubs. Probably a dozen to fifteen high schools are 
being touched in this way. If held regularly, meetings are monthly for the 
most part. The schedule is varied from meeting to meeting; there are dis- 
cussions of educational topics, especially those of local interest, programs in 
which enough children take part to secure the attendance of many patrons, 
addresses by physicians on the health of children. The only difficulty found 
is that the association sometimes runs out of work, and then busies itself 
with professional problems that the teachers should be working out together. 
One superintendent declared that he wanted nothing of the sort. 

The work of those outside bodies is at times excellent. A woman's club 
gave one school a victrola; two organizations of women in different towns 
put $40 and $35, respectively, into playground apparatus for their schools; a 
civic club secured better sanitation of buildings and is now working to re- 
duce the cost of dress at commencement. 

Students are encouraged to proficiency by prizes. A parent-teacher asso- 
ciation gives $15 each year to the boy who wins a contest in reading (declama- 
tion), and a woman's club in the same district does the same for the girl. 
Private parties become interested. A local pastor talked to a school on cur- 
rent events and gave books as prizes to three students who passed the best 
examination on the ground he covered. Members of one board give three 
prizes of $5 to the winners of contests in essay, oratory, and declamation. 
Business men give $5 for the best essays, on local topics, a fine stimulus to 
students to study their own home and find out what it contains. A local 
fair association gives prizes for drawings and a superintendent gives prizes 
for manual training designs. One citizen gives $10 annually for the best 
oration, and an equal amount for the best essay. A banker gives $10 for 
the best debater. A patron presented a gas engine to a school on condition 
that the boys be shown how to run it. Students in one school were given 
credit in bookkeeping for a set of books showing the disposal of the family 
budget for a specified time. A domestic science class did its cooking at home. 
The Holly plan in Domestic Science is another illustration of cooperation. 
Women of a town which could not hire a teacher of Domestic Arts made up 



SURVEY OF PUBLIC HIGH-SCHOOL EDUCATION. 91 

a schedule that allowed for each of nine women to give some instruction 
for a month, thus filling out the year. Two citizens in one town, profes- 
sional men, went to the high school to teach one class daily. Close correla- 
tion of activities of the public library and the school has been made. 

B. THE SCHOOL SERVING THE COMMUNITY. 

An important means of service to the community lies in the opening of the 
school building and its facilities to the use of citizens in any collective activ- 
ity. The familiar "social center" idea comes in here. In the small towns 
and rural places it often happens that the school building can accommodate a 
larger crowd than any other available meeting place. Perhaps there is no 
church or hall in the community. The school then is the place to hold lec- 
tures, political gatherings, meetings of the grange, and social affairs. Parent- 
teacher associations usually are held at the school. One rural high school 
arranged a lecture course on rural subjects. A few schools with strong agri- 
cultural constituencies test milk and seed for the farmers. A civics class 
caught a social inspiration and collected two wagon loads of clothing and 
food for the poor. 

Teachers in our high schools last year ran private classes in Latin, Ger- 
man, Geometry, Trigometry, Mechanical Drawing, Stenography, Typewriting, 
and Music. A woman principal organized a group of women patrons to carry 
on a reading course on the Scandinavian countries. They met twice a month 
for discussion. A superintendent supervised an athletic club for the boys of 
ihe town. Many teachers took an active part in the religious life of their 
districts. On the other hand, scores of high-school teachers desert the little 
towns from Friday evening until Sunday night or Monday morning for cen- 
ters of larger interest. 

At two Denver high schools night schools are run. In one county high 
school evening classes in drafting are held for local mechanics. One school 
holds an annual farmers' week, gives a five-month commercial course and a 
three-month teachers' review in the winter. Two county high schools hold 
agricultural short courses of six and twelve weeks, respectively, in the later 
winter season. 

C. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. 

With the vast amount of attention given to vocational subjects scarcely 
any thought has been devoted to vocational guidance. The assistance given 
by several schools to students who come from out of town and need employ- 
ment to help pay their expenses looks in this direction a little, but the 
employments secured are regarded as makeshifts by the pupils rather than 
as possible vocations. Two or three schools are trying to place students in 
vacations. In these cases the worker probably looks at his work as a voca- 
tion. 

One high school has tried the Oregon plan of giving credit for work of 
many different kinds performed out of school. This is a distinct challenge 



92 UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO. 

to the student to try himself out. In the process it is likely that he will 
learn something about himself. Credit is given hour for hour as though the 
time had been spent in the laboratory. A large city school holds consulta- 
tion with business men and recommends students for employment. In two 
places the faculty discuss choice of an occupation and kindred topics as well 
as they can. Professional and business men come into two schools and speak 
of their particular vocations, and at one school the seniors are given some 
special instruction. Other advice is given only as the student voluntarily 
goes to some one in the school and asks for it. 



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